N.J. Krom, Barabudur: Archaeological Description, II, The Hauge 1927, pp.196-213 inclusive. Now need to scan in pp. 214-245

The figures displayed before us on the reliefs of Barabudur belong to all classes of society, from the cakravartin, the king who is ruler of the world, to the most simple dweller of the desk. No wonder then, if we begin with the dress, that we find it in all possible variety.

The most primitive sort of costume used by the lower class particularly in country districts, appears specially in the reliefs on the buried base which represent mostly scenes of humble life. This dress is nothing more than a loin‑cloth. We might think such to be the costume of the original inhabitants, that is the Indonesian people of the island before the Hindu's appeared there and who we might suppose paid little attention to dress and would be content with a loin‑cloth. Such a conclusion would be rash, for in the present day many villagers in India can be seen going about in this apparently primitive garment and maybe it was imported into Java and supplanted some still more scanty attire.

The cloth, actually a loin‑cloth, that only more or less covers the legs but never reaches further than the knee, is folded round the body so that a corner of it always hangs down in front. In some cases it can be seen that this corner is pulled through a belt which keeps the garment in place, in others the cloth is only folded in a way something like an infants napkin and there is apparently no belt.

It is impossible to say whether the latter fashion is really another sort or only that the belt is not visible but must be considered as present. Sometimes when one of these folk is sitting with his back to the spectator, do we see a corner sticking out behind. This short cloth is worn by the women as well; but with the females it is often replaced by a longer garment reaching to just above the ankles, that evidently resembles the sarong.

The hairdressing of these people is also very plain. The hair is brushed back smoothly and then sometimes hangs down loose, but generally it is twisted into a knot at the back of the head. It is possible there are people with bald heads among them, though more likely not, because those figures whose back hair is plainly to be seen, often have the front part of their head smooth‑shaven just like the monks. There can be no doubt about those whose back hair is visible, but those who do not shew the back of their heads might be taken for people with shorn crowns, though the resemblance to the others that are quite visible makes it less probable. Sometimes the line where the hair begins is cut so that it looks as if the figure was wearing a smooth cap. This I think is due only to indistinct work, because many of the persons with such "caps" still wear the ordinary style of hair on the middle of their head. It is quite another thing of course where some of the more elaborate head‑ and hairdressing fits round the head with a flat edge, which is of course intended for a cap‑shaped frame. Those people who have no further sort of headdress and are to be recognised by the loin‑cloth as of the lowest class, we can consider to be wearing their own hair brushed back. Very occasionally we find a turban worn, folded narrow and knotted round the head so that one corner sticks up at the top and another hangs down; see 0 2 and 118.

The first sign of a better class is a polished necklace and a pair of earrings with a plain flower‑ornement. The hair too is dressed differently with a thick band, probably a wreath, round it and the back hair if not hanging loose, is twisted up into a small knot that hangs in the neck under the wreath. But we must not imagine these variations are enough to distinguish one class of persons from another; on the contrary as far as we can judge they represent the same kind of desa‑people, only sometimes better dressed than usual. When anything of their work is to be seen, they appear to be labourers, street‑vendors, handicraftsmen, musicians, fishermen, in short ordinary village folk.

Very gradually we rise from these people of the lowest class, those without caste and ,cudra's, by a little more ornament, and more costly outfit, till at last we reach the kings and their attendants. There is no very distinct separation between the one group and another, we see the desa‑folk talking with men a little more well‑to‑do, their burgermasters (as we know from the records) and their landlords who again appear in higher company in various gradations, and so on. Possibly the difficulty of setting strict limits is not only the result of the actual conditions of their community but may be owing a good deal to the above‑mentioned efforts the sculptors made to bring variety into their work even in depicting the very same person. However it may be, the changes of the various classes in appearance are very gradual on these reliefs.

Still worn with the short loin‑cloth, the necklaces begin to be handsomer; they are made of beads or shew a widening on the breast evidently of gold or silver work. At the same time the headdress gets more elaborate; the hair sometimes combed up on the middle of the head into a tuft which is kept in place by an ornamented band round it, or it may be left smooth and a diadem‑shaped headdress worn on it, with a trigular ornament in the centre, above the brow, and often smaller ones on each side. The next step is a diadem, not loose on the hair but forming the border to a cap which covers the hair and that begins to have a rather pointed shape; here we already have a simple kind of tiara, low in form but already showing resemblance to the lofty pointed tiara's of kings and royal persons. Probably as a remainder of the loose‑diademstyle with combed‑up hair, the higher centrepiece of these plain tiara's often has a spiral twisted‑up shape, a kind of headdress we find among the people of the desa but is also seen among the servants and attendants of kings. In the same way we see the supporting band, the loose belt round the waist in which the seated persons like to lean one knee and so ease their position, as much used by the chief men of a village as by the king himself.

After the earrings and necklace, we get rings on the wrists, ankles and upper arm, especially the latter become elaborately ornamented with wide, always triangular plates of metal. The girdle, at the same time as the headdress, is more richly adorned and the caste‑cord appears; with the women the so‑called woman's girdle, a double band going over both shoulders and under both arms and fastened with a handsome clasp on the breast. These two kinds of belt are of course seen with all sorts of variations, the caste‑cord for instance varies from a plain band to a splendid piece of workmanship apparently of gold links. But the headdress is always the most elaborate work of art.

There is no need to enumerate all the varieties of costume especially as their gradual transitions into one another prevents us being able to recognise certain classes of people by acertainstyleofdress;thereare a few exceptions to this rule which I shall point out later on. The royal costume requires separate mention, though it must be concise, because what is found on Barabudur does not actually differ from what other j Middle‑Javanese sculpture shews us and is only remarkable for the great | number of monarchs depicted and the astonishing diversity the sculptors have managed to introduce.

The only real garment is still the loin‑cloth, only altered by the mate‑ \ rial being more ample so that it can be folded differently and for in‑ ~ stance while it hangs on the one side only to the knee, on the other it I is longer, sometimes to the ankles; in other ways too this garment can | be altered but it seems to be always a long narrow cloth. People who are I in a hurry, of course not of the leisured classes, make it easier for them‑ ~ selves by "girding up their loins" and tying the rest of it into a bunch in I front of their middle. The ornament above‑mentioned becomes a magnificent display of precious stones and goldsmith's skill; then we see richer adornment of another kind by a second necklace that hangs rather lower than the first, more of a breast ornament. Then another belt is put on just below the breast and above the hips, generally flat and with a pearl‑shaped ornament. The girdle that holds the garment together can always be discerned, it has now become an important piece of the decoration, always fastened in front of the body with a splendid clasp, often with the two ends of the garment hanging down on either side. Under the girdle can be seen, across the thighs, the wide scarf‑like band used when seated to support the knee; when standing it is tied in a big bow at the side of the figure; the ends of this garment do not hang in front but down the side of the leg. In the simpler style of this dress (clearly to be seen Ib 59) comes first the girdle and then the sash, one under the other. This can be enriched by a second girdle below the first one and by winding the sash twice round the thighs: then we get four bands one below the other. On many reliefs it is not very easy to distinguish the two girdles and sashes, the girdles with their ends hanging down in front and the sashes with ends at the side of the legs, but fortunately there are examples enough (f.i. Ia 16) where the various pieces can easily be distinguished.

The high pointed tiara to judge by its shape must have originated in the diadem or is at least connected with it; the lowest part of it, the band that goes round the head, is the same thing as that of the diadem, with an ornament in the middle and one on each side above the ears, Inside this rises the conical‑shaped headdress in all sorts of styles, often built up of rings gradually smaller and more or less adorned with j ewels and similar ornaments. The ladies prefer a less‑pointed shape; above the band there is often a second circle that is decorated with little twists as if in imitation of the natural curls. The whole headgear is often crowned with a flower ornement and hanging ribbons for both sexes, The rest of the women's costume differs very little from that of the men; the caste‑cord being replaced by the women's girdle and the dress reaching down to their ankles.

Children are dressed in various ways. Sometimes they wear nothing at all, at least those of the lower classes; they are carried in the slendang which is still in use (O 38, 44). Infant princes on the other hand often wear minature royal dress; they can often be recognised by the crescentshaped ornament behind the neck that has already been described i), and a double band in the style of the womens' girdle, generally with a large clasp in front on the breast, sometimes without a clasp but then made of links like a chain (II B 24). The chief person on IV B 43, with a plain band and crescent has a wonderful headdress; a broad band with twisting figures rising from it, that may be are snakes. It is quite possible this is some supernatural being; the story is an unidentified one. The crescent and band over the breast evidently represent official costume; the ordinary dress of upper‑class children will be that of the small boy on 0 32; rings on wrists and ankles, a necklace and a little cap with ornemented border on the head. The ends of the garment hanging down at the side of the head do not distinctly belong to the child, but may just as likely be part of the father's dress to whom it evidently clings in fright.

I will mention a few reliefs separately. For the most primitive dress of the desafolk 0 34 has very good examples; here we see very distinctly the single loincloth or sarong with a belt. O 111 shows a bit of headgear not seen anywhere else; that is if the wide round, pointed object one of the. women is holding is reallv a sun‑hat such as is still used for work in 	the fields at the present day; of course it might be a basin or a rice dish.  Among the poor people in series O we noticed there were some wearing a sort of wreath on their head, the same thing appears continually in 	 places without it being possible to make out what kind of people it really belongs to; there are brahmans (for inst. IBa 71, IIB 35, 80), but also female servants (II 80), and merchants (Ib 67). In the last case foreigners appear in the story and we might think this sort of dress was specially meant to distinguish them; but comparison with the text shews us that though this may hold good for some of the reliefs it is not general.  On Ib 58 however the men in this dress who nearly all have beards, andcurious rolled‑up earrings, are very foreign‑looking, on Ib 59 the same sort of persons are in attendance on a yaksa. They appear in this series continually, especially as attendants and servants, never as chief persons. It cannot be some special costume for solemn or festive occasions, it is not general enough for that and besides it is wanting just where the text describes feasts and ceremonies. We fail to discover what rules have guided the sculptors in this respect; it is perhaps better not to attach too much importance to what may be only a longing for variety or the fancy of some particular artist.  

For the headdress, I mention the reliefs where a loose tiara is held in the hand or being offered to someone so that we can see it is a quite separate object, not something that has to be fixed up every time or is arranged with the hair. These reliefs are Ia 6, 36, 37, lb 9, 37, IBa 275. On III 12 the chief person is wearing a remarkable headdress with three standing‑up loops on the second band, that is above the diadem band.  We must not forget that this person is a Bodhisattva, therefore not bound by earthly fashions; a similar sort of headdress is worn by some attendants on III B 22 and 83. Probably also Bodhisattva's are represented by the men who in the story 111 B 23 and following wear tiara's made up with locks of hair; we have already noticed Avalokite,cvara's similar style of hairdressing. Hair twisted into loops above a diadem‑band appears in other scenes, III 14, 30, 84; these figures too may be heavenly beings, the person on the first‑mentioned one whose tiara ends in a flame is certainly another Bodhisattva, the same as on IV 36. Locks of |hair above a plain headband we get on IBa 147, men with moustache,  and hair hanging down in locks who look like foreigners. Then there al	ork is a tiara with a large rosette‑ornement in front (Ib 57), one entirely of flower‑ornement (IBb 116), elaborate decoration of foliage and goldsmiths work, also on the breast‑necklace and bracelets (III 75, undoubtedly heavenly beings). Among the attendants there are some such as on lb 60 and 74 with a high sharp triangular ornement in front of a thick round band, or on IVB 56 with large spiral curls on both sides of a pointed centre‑ornement; on lb 24 with a thick band at the back of his head inside which there is a crown‑shaped ornament, i.e. lines bent outwards and then turned together into the centre and finished with a pointed ornement on top. It is noticeable that one of the chief persons on IIIB 71 wears a headdress that has the shape of a tiara but has no sign of ornament, this however may be the result of wear and tear. Finally there is a style in which the hair is not brushed up but drawn smoothly back with only a flower above the forehead and behind the ears; this is shown on lb 26, 34 and others. Shoes are only to be found on O 116 where a pair of sandals are put ready, wide soles with a couple of straps to fasten them to the feet. Generally everyone, even royal persons, go barefoot.

The women—I here just mention the curious chainlike girdles on lb 21, IBa316 or II 127—often hold some object in their hand, not exactly part of the costume but worthy of notice. First there are mirrors, round with an arched surface and fastened at the back to a long or short handle.

These are to be seen on O 144 and 151 and with a surface still more arched, much too convex for a looking‑glass, but that may be the sculptor's fault, on O 17, 69, 139, 148, Ia 54, IBa 51; in owe case O 32, it is a man who has it in his hand. Another kind of shape with flat surface seems to be in use on IIB 92, but this relief is somewhat damaged. If these objects are really intended for mirrors then it is remarkable that they are not like the looking‑glasses we know as Hindu‑Javanese, with the handle always fastened to their edge, not at the back, and very slightly convex. The large oblong things that look like flat empty trays and are held in both hands on C) 12 or Ib 120, we might also take for mirrors but perhaps they are the same objects that appear on O 70, Ia 98 and II 73 and seem to be only dishes or trays arranged with valuables. Another‑ object continually seen in the hands of female servants is the fan, made of feathers fixed in fan‑shape and sometimes fastened to a handle at the bottom (O 72, Ib 26, IBa 281), sometimes without a handle and held through a hole in the centre (Ia 13, 16, IBa 217, II 108; held by a man II 45). A variation (also held by a man) we see on II 31; here the fan is very small, made of much smaller feathers and fastened to a very long handle. This object does not seem to be meant for practical use, it is carried by an attendant in the retinue of an eminent person, the same as another one holds the fly‑whisk, more as a sign of dignity than use.

Among the separate categories of people the first are the members of the Congregation whose appearance is easily recognised.

Their heads are always shaved and they wear nothing on them, their dress is the same monk's garment worn by the Buddha, such as will be described in the next chapter. \Ve find one relief (Ia 110) with monks of a different sort where, according to the text, the Buddhais conversing with an Ajivaka (on the relief there are three of them). There is no reason to believe that there were such sort of people in Java; probably these were invented by the sculptor. The appearance of these three men is certainly rather strange; the head quite smooth in front, either shaved or the hair brushed back, has a bunch of hair on the top twisted into a bow in the style of ascetics with a long lock hanging down on the shouldder; the upper part of the body is bare except for a cloth that goes over the left shoulder and under the right arm, the rest of it hanging down; the lower part of the body is covered with a garment reaching to the ankles fastened with a girdle and clasp; they have bracelets round the upper arm and a sect‑mark resembling an urea on their forehead. It looks very doubtful if this costume is anything real.

Bhiksuni's also appear on the reliefs though not so frequently as the monks. We see them first among the Buddha's hearers, IBa 329, II 5 and 8; but also playing an active part, Ib 73 and 74, IBb 117, 127, 128, II 43 and 90. Three of these scenes, Ib 74 and IBb 117 and 127, evidently depict the ordaining of a nun, with the novice seated in front of the members of the order; further details are given in the description of the reliefs, which must also be consulted for the question whether IBb 10 represents a scene of nuns. Finally in the wellknown story of Cu4,dabodhi, there is a woman in the complete dress of a nun, IBa 73—76, where there is no question of taking the vows, only of a woman following her husband who has become a hermit, into a life in the wilderness. The nuns all wear a garment corresponding to the monk's dress and like them a shaved head. The garment is scorn, so that the whole upper part of the body is covered; the sculptor's habit of distinctly showing the human form under the garment gives the appearance of nudity, but the edge of the dress round the neck is always visible and shews it is meant to be there. Both hands appear outside the dress that can be seen to hang down from the wrists. This garment reaches to above the ankles and an edge of the under‑garment can be distinguished below it; one corner is thrown over the shoulder, generally the left, but sometimes the right. On one occasion, a secondary figure on II 90, the sculptor gives us an under‑garment worn like a sarong and fastened with a girdle, but we may remark that the only other standing figure of a nun—that on IBa 76, as we saw was not actually a nun—does not wear the same kind of thing. The seated nuns—all the rest are sitting—do not show any undergarment so that the dress of their sister on II 90 remains unique).

It would be useless to enumerate all the scenes where monks appear, their costume is always the same. Nor need we examine those where brahYnans are to be found, they are everywhere and mentioned in nearly every text. Not that their appearance is always the same; the members of this caste move in all kinds of surroundings and their dress is that of various classes of society, the needy brahman who accepts alms is not in the same costume as the elegant, important purohita, the Court chaplain. Brahmans always wear a beard and moustache; never any headdress but the hair always brushed smooth to the back and then twisted into a knot tied round with a more or less ornamental band. They are often seen with the wreath already‑ mentioned round the head, occasionally with a flower, either a real one or some floral ornament, in the front and at the sides, just the same place where the ornaments are put on a diadem; sometimes the hair in front is quite smooth and a flower put in the band that fastens the back hair. The rest of this dress in its simplest form consists of only a loincloth with a plain girdle, besides of course the caste‑cord; as the brahman rises in the social scale he wears the usual necklaces, bracelets and rings round the arms and ankles etc. Let us take an example from the most typical of them. First the brahman who is a wanderer in the forest in the Cacijataka, IBa 23—25; he wears a loincloth and wreath, has a bundle on his shoulder, an umbrella in one hand, his staff in the other; nearly as plainly dressed, without the wreath and staff but carrying the umbrella and wearing bracelets, we see the man who is being received with high honour on IIB 13. The brahmans who are among the desa‑folk have no other ornament than a pair of earrings and often carrv an umbrella. in such scenes ac O 16 54. 55 and 122.

There is a brahman plainly dressed at the beginning of series IIIB; he is seated on a cushion in conversation and elsewhere, for instance IIB 14, sitting on an undecorated chair. In this last scene he has a disciple with him without a beard but with the same style of hair, who carries the umbrella and a square tray with necessaries. There are two disciples on IIIB84, each with tray and umbrella, and the brahman sits on a curious stool with latticed sides, evidently of basket‑work; this is the usual seat of these people. When money and clothing is being distributed, brahmans are always among the first to receive the dole, and it is thereby ~ noticeable that not only the poor and needy but evidently the well‑to‑do I present themselves, as can be seen by their style of dress. Of course we I know that this performance of benevolence is principally uDdertaken for the benefit of the donor i.e. to increase the number of his good deeds; in the Indian community, bestowing alms on a brahman is specially virtuous because he is a brahman, not because he is poor; in the same way, in the texts it is often the most eminent brahmans who get the most gifts. This custom being maintained as well on Barabu,dur is remarkable in so far that we should not expect to find it so in a specially Buddhist community where a brahman was of no more importance than any other person and on the contrary the law of charity to the poor and needy was in force. It looks to me as if the sculptors were here drawing from real life, for in Hindu‑Javanese society with its strong Civaitic element and powerful syncretism, brahmans must have remained,  people of importance even as regards the Buddhists. Such so to say un‑Buddhist benevolence towards anything but poor brahmans must  have been in accordance with the custom of the time. One distribution in particular must be noted, on O 26, where the brahmans have an unusual style of hair, not twisted into a knot, but coiled into loops.

Then a few examples of brahmans in the higher circles with their more elegant appearance, such as those on O 111, whohavehandsomeearrings, IBa 148 the ornamented clasp on the girdle, IIB 88, IVB 56, with other noticeable adornments The brahmans in this last scene have very curious square‑cut beards. We have noticed the distinguished brahman who draws the horoscope on Ia 18 and 19; another on IIB 33 is teaching and on II 70 and 124 learned brahmans are being consulted; in both cases they wear a wreath round their head; one is sitting on a plain chair, the other on his stool. Brahmans are continually met with as advisers and ministers of the kings; among others, very distinctly on Ib 10 or IBa 76; on the latter we see the wreath is replaced by abandwithflowers on it. The text shows us that the brahman on lb 7 is the court chaplain and the one on lb 100 is undoubtedly the same kind of eminent man with his handsomely decorated headband and the retinue of royal emblem‑bearers. Taken in the aggregate, Barabudur has a fine collection of brahmans, showing their importance in the community, |from the highest to the lowest class.

Though as we have seen, persons in brahman dress are sometimes found in the wilderness and other persons (such as the already‑mentioned Cuddabodhi) perform their "tape" in the dress of a bhiksu, still most of the ascetics or hermits have an easily recognised aspect. According to the texts, hair twisted up and a garment of fibre is the proper dress for the tapasvin, and the first characteristic certainly distinguishes these on Barabudur; the hair is twisted up on the top of the head into a loop with or without an unornamented band and then hangs loose.

The rest of the costume is nothing but a belt, of course as plain as possible, with a piece of cloth fastened to it in front just large enough to pass between the legs and cover the privy parts, this cloth may also be made of bark, but that cannot be distinguished. This dress is always finished off with a necklace of coarse beads, sometimes a sort of sash is worn over the left shoulder that can be used to support the knee when sitting. The hermit always has a beard, he often holds a rosary in his hand and when depicted in the place where he lives, he has always awaterjug at hand. The loops of hair are sometimes smaller or larger, or less carefully dressed and the loop is not always distinct so that it looks only like a bunch of hair just tied up; this is evidently of no importance as can be noticed on the consecutive reliefs Ia 75—77 and elsewhere, the identity of the hermits is made clear by the text but in the middle scene they have no loops in their hair and on the other two the style is quite different. Ascetics such as above‑described continually appear; for examples see O 16, 26, 28, 52, la 40, 71, 72, 102, 117, Ib 40, IBa 26, 65‑68, 180, 372, IBb 79 (here we see as well as the waterjug, a dish and a 	trident), IIB 59 60 (also with staff etc) ), IVB 4. In the story IIB39 42,	 hermits play a chief part; there (on no. 40) we see persons with hair just twisted together but not in loops, whose costume plainly shows they are no ordinary hermits. What they really are we cannot tell, and the same is the case with a third type (on 39) who wear their hair in stuck‑out loops ) We must wait for enlightenment until the text is discovered. At the same time I call attention to the fact worth considering, that the ascetic on Ib 5 has no loops in his hair, neither when he appears again on no. 15, but his followers have and the same is the case with the party of hermits on IVB24,  the leader without  his disciples w ith the loopedup hair.

A few of these hermits are somewhat less plainly dressed and wear a bracelet or a belt with ribbons. Those on O 37 look handsomer too and on IBa 3 4 we see very richly worked girdles; IBa 127 and II 86 are much the same. Still better‑dressed and onlyshewing their ascetic nature in the looped style of hair, are the figures on IBa 82—85, 108—109, II 115, and O 75; they wear full‑dress decorations and the looped up coiffure stands up above a correct diadem band. Compared with the first these are real fashionable ascetics and we wonder if they are some other kind of people altogether; but fortunately these tales on the first balustrade have been identified so that we know for certain these men are only ascetics. Thus we can judge how well these renouncers of all worldly things were able to accommodate themselves to circumstances and at least on the reliefs, as is here shown, to appear in the royal presence in court attire. But the eminent person who wears the looped up hair of an ascetic above a diadem, with unkempt locks at the side of it, IBa 152, we are not able to identify; he is dressed like a person of distinction and exhibitions of wrestling and dancing are being performed for his benefit.

In one place in the life history of Cakyamuni, Ia 70, we find female ascetics who are mentioned in the text as belonging to the brahman caste. Their hair and necklace is just the same as that of the men; the band over the left shoulder is sometimes as narrow as a string at the top, but under the right arm looks like the usual width of the supporting belt. These women also wear bracelets on the upper arm and the rest of their dress seems to be a sarong with a plain girdle. It is still unknown whether nunneries actually existed in Java such as those described in the Buddha story; though we know for certain that women also practised tapa and descriptions have been found of communities with male and female hermits like those frequently mentioned in Indian literature; therefore it must be left undecided if this relief represents what the sculptor was used to seeing in his own surroundings. Perhaps the girl who on Ib 34 brings a refreshing drink to a tired man with a wreath of flowers on her head, her hair tied with a band and hanging down at the back, as I remarked before '), may belong to a hermitage in the style of the idyllic Sagara whose praise is sung in the Nagarakrtagama. 

Another class of persons, ascetics in a kind of way, but not to be identified as such, are the rsi's; they have a somewhat different aspect. The distinction is not very important because in the days of Barabudur there were no more living rsi's to be found either within or outside the community, so the sculptor either followed some imported tradition or was obliged to draw on his own invention for their appearance. Unfortunately the only scene where we are certain of having a rsi before our eyes, I a 31, where the great seer Asita is uttering his prophecy about the new‑born Buddha, is not very distinct; the fsi whose nephew and companion is dressed as an ordinary hermit, seems only to differ from the ascetic type in his hairdressing, wearing instead of the looped‑up style, a large round bunch of hair tied up on the top of his head, with hanging locks arranged on either side. Another very dilapidated figure on Ia 29 with a mass of unkempt hanging hair, is possibly also a fsi although he is wearing a handsomer kind of belt. In the series on the chief wall of the second gallery, those on 24 and 29 may be the same kind of seers; they are not quite the same but both resemble Asita in their style of hair, fastened into a bunch on the top of the head, not in loops, with locks hanging down at the side, while they have further the appearance of an ascetic. They both waer a broad headband without ornament, the latter (no. 39), actually a parivrajaka, is sitting on a brahman stool, he is living in the wilderness with a disciple and a waterjug; a jar with a lid, a shell on a pedestal and a trident are beside him.

Before leaving the subject of costume and hairdressing, I must call attention to a couple of noteworthy scenes. O 36 is very curious, we see curling locks of hair that hang from a chignon at the back of the head; horizontal stripes in the beard such as the brahmans wear on IV B 56, we find again with some very simple folk on O 35 and IV B 11. In contrast to this a couple of men on O 148 havetheirbeardsdividedinvertical lines as if it were a row of imperials. Finally let us notice the widow, identified as such by her single plait, on Ib 107, and then the negro or Papuan slave with his woolly head on IIB 33. He is proof positive of a custom known to us from the inscriptions, but being unique of his kind among all these reliefs, he shows that in the time of Barabudur the keeping of such slaves must have been very exceptional.

Weapons on the whole seem to have been little worn; they certainly do not belong to the ordinary kinds of dress and only v cry seldom do we see any person engaged in peaceful conversation who is armed, one instance being the chief figure on II B 80, a man who looks like a brahman, seated on a stool and wearing a short broad dagger at his side. They only seem to have weapons when occasion may require, but of coarse the soldiers, palace guards etc. are always armed. The later‑Javanese custom when every man of any importance wore a kriss in his belt, seems to be quite strange to the society of Barabugur. The kriss itself, this is noticeable at once, does not appear at all.

If we begin by examining the simple folk in the series on the buried base, we find at once on O 2 a man with bow and arrow, the arrow having a triangular barbed point and feathers at the top. Then on nos. 4 and 8 there are executioners with large flat swords, the blade of which is slightly curved, becoming wider and ending in a point; further on we see on Ib 79, the royal executioner using the same kind of sword, only straighter; so it looks as if this is the proper weapon for executions. No. 10 shews an attack with a dagger and on no. 24 there is a fight going on with the same swords as well as a spear, a club and a blow‑pipe, the two last, as we see on no. 91, being the usual weapons for small‑game hunting. Big game, as will be described later on, was hunted with bow and arrows. The spear is very seldom seen, it is found in the hands of a hellfiend on no. 92. These are the various kinds of weapons in use among the people who appear in these scenes; I may mention that another shape of sword with a long straight blade that we see so frequently on the higher galleries, seems to be much less used by the lower classes than the flat, curved, broad shape. A warrior's dance is being performed on no. 5 by four men, three of whom hold a small round shield in the left hand and in the right a dagger, a curved sword and a spear respectively; the fourth has the same kind of sword and a large square shield,

Turning to the higher classes we find a different scene but not any other sort of weapon. Armed guards and soldiers are to be found on nearly all reliefs in the retinue of kings and persons of importance on their journeys and at the doors of the palace etc., but the weapons are always the same; straight swords, large oval shields, bow and arrows and the I flat curved swords, but the last are much less common than the straight i, shape. The back of the shield is sometimes ornamented with a circle with a square point at the four sides or perhaps only top and bottom, sometimes with nothing but a square. I give a few examples, most from the large distimct scenes on the chief wall of the first gallery, but there are many more to be found, Both kinds of sword are present, separately or together, with and without bow and arrows; the straight with the round shield is seen with a large troop of soldiers on Ib 10, together with bow and arrows la 32, lb 28, II B 16; both kinds of sword la 13, the flat swords with round shields and bow and arrows Ia 39. The four‑cornered emblems on the shield are seen la 8, 25, IBa 14, the two‑pointed on la 19, 22, the square, I Ba 254. The arrows are found tied in sheaves (Ia32, lb 33), or kept in a quiver (lb 37); also a closed up quiver such as we see on lb 76 may have arrows in it.

As regards the straight sword, Ia 67 shows us the sheath held loose in the hand, therefore the shape is here very distinct. Shields are found in some variety. Besides the ordinary round ones, we see on Ib 44 (in combination with a dagger, as in some very rare instances elsewhere) a large rectangular shield with slightly curved long sides; on la 9 the edge of the round shield is adorned with tassels. A smaller kind of oblong shield is to be seen on Ib 40, a rectangular one, narrower in shape and curved, on la 3l and lb 104. The same in smaller size is on lb 6 and 97, still smaller, only a hand‑shield, on la 56. Of course it is not certain that there is actually anydifferenceinsize,possiblythevariation is only due to the sculptor.

The pictures of fighting are few and must be cautiously treated. Those on reliefs la 94, Ib 47, IB a 47a, we know do not take place on earth; they represent battles between celestial armies, but the same weapons are used as above‑mentioned, the two kinds of sword, round and square shields, bow and arrows as well as a club and blowpipe (la 94), a battle axe and spear. The warriors in the fourthbattleII 113—wedonothnow whether they are earthly or celestial soldiers—are fighting with both kinds of sword and shield and some with daggers as well; the shields here are very small but this the sculptor must have done purposely to gain space for the combatants. The cuirass too that is being presented on lb 69 is far too small for use.

In addition to their armed followers, kings and people of importance were always accompanied by emblems showing their rank and position. The most general attribute, common as well to persons of lower rank, was the umbrella and likewise the bearers (male and female) of fly‑whisks are not always in the company of persons of the highest class. There is no distinct style of umbrellas according to the rank of the official they belong to; possibly the color showed this as it did in later Java. Sometimes they are ornamented with ribbons or a tuft of hair on the handle like the camara's, but this adornment is added quite casually here or there. Some few other emblems belong chiefly to royalty as the large fan in the shape of a sinte leaf and a feather fan also with a long handle; it is narrow at the bottom but spreads out very wide at the top. As fourth attribute sometimes a very largefly‑whiskappears; on relief Ib I and 12 we see the four objects placed next to each other. It is not possible to discern exactly what the feather fan is made of, it is sometimes longer and narrower (Ib 22), and then shorter and wider (Ia 62); the ,,feathers" are rather wide, rounded at the top and the centre‑spot, occasionally added in the lower part (Ib 22, 105), makes them look like peacock feathers; on II B 50 where they are more finished off it seems very likely, but on the whole these objects are not shown with much detail. We can only see they consist of about three to seven rows. In some cases the fan is left quite smooth and can only be recognised by its shape (Ib 94).

Such attributes are always carried behind the people they belong to, there are others, standards, banners and the like, often taken along in the same way but also fixed into the ground by way of ornament. It stands to reason that these objects and emblems just described would sometimes be set up when the eminent person was resting, and we can often see plainly that this was done with the umbrellas. Those I now speak of serve sometimes as fixed, unmoveable ornaments or if placed in a temporary position, they do not follow any special person. The least important are the banners that appear of two sorts. The first consists of a narrow strip of stuff, fastened to a pole so that part of the long edge is stuck to it and the rest waves loose; these can be seen for instance on buildings (I a 35) ornext to them (III 3), behind a seat of honour (Ia 87) or in a pendapa (Ia 84, compare IB a 80). They can also be found borne by a procession that is paying homage as on Ia 12 i) and IV26.Thesecond sort can be seen on Ia 91 and IVB 65; here the banner is only fastened with its end to the pole where it curves at the top and streams out all its length. The flag‑staff is sometimes split in two with a banner on each; instances of this are found on la 93 fixed up, and carried in the hand on O 141, their identity being given by the inscriptionpataka. Even split in three with triple pennons on the same pole it can be seen, and that as decoration to a templebuilding on III 20 and 31. Perhaps the objects on IBa 11 and IVB 8 must be reckoned as banners, though they are not very distinct.

The triple banners on III 20 just mentioned, are four in number; they are set up next to two stambha's placed on either side of the temple, one bearing a trident, the other a winged shell, both having a broad cushionshaped pedestal; the banners below their triple branch are fixed into the same kind of pedestal. Next to another temple on III 32, there are stambha's on each of the four sides with small lions on them, also fixed on a pedestal and therefore belonging to the building; at the side we see two more simha‑stambha's. Shell and trident are also carried on separate poles, the trident only once, IB a 206, the shell several times: with wings on Ib 65 and II 18, without wings on Ib 83, II 72 and Ib a 166. In this last scene we may remember next to the seated Garuga there is a pole set up bearing the figure of a bird. The cakra is quite a favorite, found on Ia 91, Ib 68, O 33, IBb 101, II 92, III 59, III B 58, and once or twice at the top of a banner IB a 47 a, where it is apparently an ensign of battle and IBb 11 2). A staff bearing the jewel is also not uncommon, as we see on la 73, 91, Ib 75, IBa 168, 260 and III 59.

Beside these we have standards that are not meant to carry some special emblem but have a cushion‑shaped top with a small ornament on it; these appear in various forms, set up as a fixture next to a building as well as carried in the train of a distinguished personage. We find them on O 29, III 47, IV 10, 20, at the top of a banner, and further on la 73, Ib 70, IBa 292, 369, II 76, IV 26. There is a round ball‑shaped top to a standard on O 132, lb 63, IB b 118, II B 92 and probably IB a 359, but most of this has been knocked off. The curious broad top to the banner on lb 33 we must not give too much attention to, it may be nothing more than a suitable finish to the banner. Finally let us notice on lb 83 a couple of standards with a clasp shaped like a shamrock leaf by being bent inwards at each side, like the frame of a lamp; they are finely ornamented. Though much plainer, the staff a monk has in his hand on IV 28 is very much like these, it also has the same sort of clasp with bells hung on it to attract attention. Such kind of objects are among those that have actually been found in Java.

There was a pole with a small box at the top on IBa 175. The text there chewed us that this was not an emblem or an ornament, but the box contained a sum of gold to be carried throughout the land as a 	reward to the person who fulfilled the king's wishes.

 Also belonging to the emblems, though very fictitious ones, are the seven royal attributes the saptaratrta^ni, the ,,jewels" belonging to the ruler of the world, the horse, elephant, disk, gem, spouse, general and minister (or pater‑familias). These are depicted in several scenes where the cakravartin appears. They are partly easily identified, cakra and cintamanu hovering in the air on lotuscushions as well as horse and elephant, but the rest of the seven are not always to be found, especially the male figures. On O 129 we get the first cakravartin‑scene, the ,,spouse" is evidently the queen seated beside the monarch with a halo behind her head; thenonthegroundareseatedsix male attendants all alike, none of them being recognisable as ~ general" and ~ minister". O 132 shows five similar attendants and here it is even impossible to distinguish which of the ladies near the king is really his "jewel of a queen". In contrast to this on O 159 we see on a separate seat,next to the group of the king himself,on one side a woman and on the other a man, the queen Andorra of the male jewels, but where is the other? Relief lb 44 is no better; the saptaratnani are here flying through the air, the four objects are distinct enough, so is the queen, then comes the yaksa who according to the tale i) acts as herald or if need be as general or minister—he advises the king continually to start new wars—but behind this group there is nothing but an umbrella‑bearer, and in any case the seventh jewel is missing entirely. On the first balustrade there is a story twice showing the saptaratnani; in the scenes IBa 285—287 the queen can easily be recognised but not the male jewels, and on reliefs 290—291, behind the four other jewels in the air, there is a chariot in which the queen sits beside a man in ceremonial dress; this person might be one of the male jewels and then the other is missing; but most likely it is the cakravartin himself. The queen with the four ordinary jewels is found on IV B 1; then III 59 is noticeable because jewel and disk are not on cushions but placed at the top of standards, and here we look in vain for the queen. On III B 58 again the disk is at the top of a standard but the (very indistinct) jewel seems to be hovering on a lotus cushion. The male "jewels" here are not indicated at all, the queen not very clearly. To sum up it looks very much as if the Barabudur sculptors were not familiar with the saptaratnani and perhaps are showing us the pancaratnani —only in a single instance do they give us one of the male jewels and sometimes also lose sight of the queen. At a later period the saptaratnani were really known in Java as we see by their representation on the Amoghapaca‑statue sent to Sumatra by Krtanagara in 1286 and their mentioning on its inscription ).

The ceremony of consecrating a king, the abbiseka, appears to be depicted in a few scenes where a brahman is sprinkling someone with a brush in one hand and a shallow basin with holy water in the other. The most indistinct are IBa 216, where the brahman is coming towards a royal personage but there is no sign of what happens, and Ia 50, the marriage of Cakyamuni, where at any rate the new garments and wreaths suitable for a consecration are put ready. On IBa 275 we can see that a servant is bringing the royal tiara; but IIB 18 is by far the most remarkable. The king is sitting in the middle without any adornment, his hair hanging loose, between two standing officials one of whom performs the sprinkling with water out of a shell, the second, a brahman (the others are too indistinct to be classified),holdingajar which he is emptying over the royal head. A third person standing holds another long‑shaped jug and a fourth has some object in his hand too worn‑away to be identified. Courtiers kneeling at the side hold ready the garments on trays with all the ornaments that belong to the dress of kings. This scene should be certainly noted as an authentic picture of the abhiseka of a Hindu‑Javanese king).

Brush and bowl we saw too on Ia 114, but there the brushis thicker and is not in the hand of a brahman but of one of the important citizens of a town where (:akyamuni is being entertained at a banquet. Every where else the sprinkling is done by brahmans with a brush like a shaving‑brush. We see them on IBa I 16 at the homage of a stupa and again on IBa 1 performing some rite to a young child. There again are two of them, one with the brush and shell, the other pouring some liquid over the child's head from a jug.

Nurses for small children in many cases are in no way distinguished from ordinary women; but there are scenes where they seem to be indicated by a curious headband in else style of a diadem with thick round pompons on it. This sort of nurse can be seen on O 44, IBa 145, IIB 10,21, 32, 76. There are many more nurses who do not wear this headdress, but the fact remains that this kind of costume is only found on nurses in charge of small children. It is impossible to make out why there are so many of them on the second balustrade; if this is not due to any fancy of the sculptor the coincidence should be noted. Sometimes, not always, a double band that looks like beads is worn with this headdress (IBa 145, II B 76); a thinner kind of necklace is worn on IBb 53 and 100, but the headdress is now indistinct. The same with IIB 24, where the women have a very chicle necklace with a sort of fringe to it; the children on this relief are too big to be nursed. I will here just mention the few instances of children's playthings; relief Ib 36 shews a miniature standard with a cushion‑shaped top, very likely a rattle; IBa 120 probably a rattle of simpler shape, and IIB 32 looks like some sort of bell unless it is meant for a flower. I also suggested the possibility that the little kinnara's being made on Ib 51 might be intended as playthings for the small boy who appears in the scene. Children playing in the water seems to be the subject of Ib 95. School where lessons are being given first by a brahman, then a monk, we find on IIB 25 and 26; in that on relief 25 the scholars have books in their hands, but at the other school they are listening most respectfully to the master. In the school where (;‑akyamuni receives his first lessons, or rather proves that he requires none, Ia 38, the scholars who seem to be older, also have books; further scenes of instruction‑giving are the whole series that begins with O 79, then IIB 33 and 34; in this last scene the scholars are no children but grown‑ups, some with beards. The same with the instruction in the Veda's given by the sons of the gods before the birth of Buddha, relief Ia 3.

Eating and drinking takes up a very small place, less perhaps than we might expect though it is hardly a subject for edifying tales. A few times we see food being prepared. First on O 2 where a cauldron is fixed on to a trivet over a wood fire, which a man is blowing up with a blowpipe; another sits next to him cleaning fish to be cooked in the pot. The knife he is using is just the shape of the present day wedung. On O 15 we see a wide flat pan also on a trivet and some‑one blowing up the fire; another man stands by, stirring with a spoon and holding a smaller dish in his hand. A third time we find something similar on Ia 84 where the rice is being cooked for the future Buddha; here too a large cauldron on a trivet over a woodfire and two women, one with a spoon, the other with a blowpipe. In conclusion may be mentioned O 89 where fishes and tortoises are being boiled by two evildoers, who will soon receive the same treatment themselves in the infernal regions.

The meal itself we find ten times (O 12, 14, 20, 97, 122, 144, Ia 29, 112, Ib 66, IBb 15), the bill of fare appears to be always the same, the wellknown "rijsttafel". There is always a large ball of rice in the middle with small dishes of various viands all round it, more or less in number and distinctness. Unusually elaborate and by good luck unusually well‑preserved are the "rijsttafels" on Ia 112 and Ib 66; on the latter we can plainly see the fishes and the sate j ust as on the famous Prambanan relief. Sometimes the fish are served on top of the ball of rice. Drink is not always given, but we see drinking cups of rather wide or bowlshape being filled from a jug with a spout, while relays of food are being brought to the table; the large bowl that is being served on Ib 66 might perhaps be intended for a sayuran. On very rare occasions we are strewn a drinking‑party with its attendant dissoluteness: they drink out of wide bowls and the spirituous liquor is poured out of a jug with spout so as just‑mentioned, or a smalI‑sized martevan such as we see being brought to the table (O 97) or a jug narrow in shape with along neck, pointed spout and large handle, the same as used for water‑carrying at the well on Ib 16. A smaller scene of this kind we find on O 90 as a prelude to hell‑punishment; again more circumstantial, on 0 20 andIBa 59; what makes this affair still more disgraceful according to the Buddhist sculptors, perhaps intentionally, these offenders are brahmans.

As regards buildings I must here be very concise. Brandes has already remarked several times that their chief importance consists in the data they afford for Ilindu‑Javanese architecture and later Parmentier has called attention to the same thing though so far provisionally. On this account it was considered better to discuss this section of relief‑subjects in the architectural part of this monograph, where such data are treated with the architecture of the whole building. I shall merely enumerate the scenes where these buildings chiefly appear. The greater number of them are palaces, temples, reception‑halls and such splendid, richly‑decorated buildings, with which in many cases the sculptor though he may have been ruled by the general principles of construction and ornament, has often given rein to his fancy and designed monuments of ideal form, such as did not exist in reality. Buildings of this kind are found specially on 024,31, 33, 43, 100, 103, 124, 131, 140, 141, 143, 14.7, 149, 152,155, Ia6, 10, 15, 19, 25, 26,35,37, 53, 54, 55, 61, 62, 64, 73, 81, 109, 112,Ib 1, 11,16,25,29,33,37,50,79,81,82,84,87,91,96,100,106,107, 112, IBa 16,26,346,IBb10,15,16,22,28,33,40,42,45,52,61,68,72,84,93,95,9799,104,110,113,114,119,125,127,IIB7,8,81,II31,38,68,93,105, 112, 114, 126, 127, III 3—7, 11, 13, the temple series that begins with 20, 69, 70, IIIB 67, 88, IVB 36, 38, IV 42 and 60. Besides these there are buildings which are evidently mostly copied from what the sculptor saw around him and are therefore valuable evidence for the architecture of that time, and for their etImological importance would be worth comparing with what is found now‑a‑days in Java and other parts of the Archipelago. Besides plain pendapa's on O 7, 14 etc and probably some of those in the series above enumerated, in particular gateways and small temples, there are specimens of this kind to be seen on O 30, 47, 65, 119, 123, 158, Ia 23, 116, Ib 54, 86, IF3a 271, IBb 106, IIIB 87, IVB 4, 14, 18, 21, 50. What a courtyard looked like, we see something of on HI I 1; on the left of this scene is a palatial‑looking house, in the centre is a pendapa where the owner of the estate receives his guests and on the right is the rice‑shed. Between the house and pavilion in the background there is a fruit tree. A fruit garden enclosed in a fence, but with no house near it, we find on O 61).

flow the buildings are arranged inside does not appear. Whenever a scene takes place indoors, the sculptor shows us one hall or apartment between the outside walls, sometimes with a smaller side‑apartment or gallery next to it or on both sides; but never anything more, so that the addition is intended probably only to explain the situation, not as a section of the building as it actually would be.

In this way we do not learn much. Take for example the large hall on If 36, that is divided into three parts by pillars, each part being roofed with a double arch ornamented with a design of foliage turned inwards (conventionalized makara's), hanging flowers and bells; it is impossible to imagine this to be the section of any real building. It might be true that the roof is supported by columns (probably wooden ones), but the loose foliage under the roof is practically impossible. How the sculptor arrived at this is quite evident; by dividing the space into three with the pillars, he obtained three niche‑shaped compartments in a row; these he treated like the niches we so often find on the temples with the same sort of arch and foliage‑ornament. The effect is very fine, the design into "nichcs" is very artistic, but it does not give us the impression of a hall. Let us not blame the artist for this, we have not the least right to expect from him an architecturally correct section of the apartment and he is perfectly justified, as long as he gives the spectator the idea of the incidents taking place in a hall, in giving his further attention to producing an artistic relief. So the spectator must be satisfied with this as a work of art, while he knows it shews him nothing of what such a hall is like in reality.

This is the case not only with this relief which I selected as a very clear demonstration of what is to be found on innumerable others and can be accepted generally for all sections of this kind; even those which I note as possibly being taken from reality we must judge as adapted more or less to the sculptors artistic requirements. To achieve his aim he may often have introduced some detail from his own time and surroundings, it is not likely he would intentionally avoid doing this, but unfortunately we have no criterion by which to test the real or fantastic elements here put before us; except in such cases as the one just discussed where any one can see at a glance the practical impossibility of such kind of ornament or construction. Everything remains in general very uncertain and can only be guessed at, for instance whether decoration of garlands that is so usual with the p~ndapa's, and is also found in the roofs of halls should have actually existed and whether they might be attached to flower shaped ornaments in the way we see on II 37 and others. Another kind of roof decoration is made with semi‑circular cushions that hang down as if the whole surface were upholstered; this too is seen in pendapa's (f.i. IV 66 where bells hang from the centre of the cushions) and in halls of audience (see, with others IIB 20, where rosettes are attached to the cushions). Sometimes we see only one of these ornements right in the middle of the apartment (Ib 63, IIB 50). It is quite reasonable to suppose that this sort of decoration existed in reality, but how can we make sure of it?

Then added to this is the restricted space available on the reliefs for the buildings. The figures acting in the scene must have the first place and are therefore generally represented in apartments quite out of proportion to their size, in which if they stood up their heads would touch the roof. The result is that the sculptor can only find room for his persons and the mostneeded of the larger pieces of furniture; with the small ones that take up less space it is another case, as we shall notice later on. There was of course no chance for any interior decoration of the apartments. In Maya's sleeping‑room on Ia 13, we see only the recumbent queen with her women and one dish; the famous scene of liakyamuni's awakening in the night on Ia 63, shews only the Bodhisattva on a bench and the sleeping women; there was no room for a proper couch. In the hall of the palace on Ib 74, the band of garlands round the ceiling is all we see of decoration to the apartment, the same with the cushion‑ornament we noted in the roof on IIB 20; a large couch and a lamp is all the furniture in the room except some small objects put away under the couch. It is the same everywhere; nowhere is there any decoration on the walls. All the same we can get some idea of what the walls look like on reliefs such as O 32 and 73. There the chief person is seated on a wide throne behind which a beautifully decorated wall can be seen. The rest of both scenes takes place in the open air, so that this cannot be meant for the wall of a room, but at any rate it is a large space that has to be decorated. In the first scene this is done with small pillars on each side of a flat panel under a cornice of garlands and rosettes; the second shews a wall covering in the design of a cross and rosette with four lobes, and a row of round vases above). Though it is quite uncertain if the walls of a room were decorated or even if the whole ornament is not due to the sculptor's fancy, it seems suitable to make mention thereof.

As regards furniture first comes the couch, the bale‑bale of the present day. In its most primitive form we find it, for instance on O 13; a plank on four legs, quite rough and without ornament. The beginning of improvement was by decorating the legs, so as can be seen in the next scene O 14. Next, when the bench is placed out of doors, a roof supported by four columns is fixed over it and that becomes the beginning of the pendapa. We can notice as described above, how the sculptors tried to give the best place to the chief actors in the scene and keep the rest subordinate, so that the bale‑bale when occupied by several figures is made the right size for them, while the pendapa cannot possibly be stretched beyond the narrow limits of the relief and must be made too small in proportion, only large enough for one or two persons, far less than a pavilion in real life would accommodate; in fact about as many as might find room on a simple couch. As the distinction between the rooIed‑in couch and pendapa we can see that the first stands on legs and the other on a foundation; should the lower pert be out of the picture then it is not possible to distinguish one from the other, their design and decoration being so much alike. On the other hand, the couch being sometimes made with a back, is easily mistaken for a chair, especially when only one person is seated on it and it is made rather shorter. The real couch is of course one on which a person reclines and then this piece of furniture often takes up the whore apartment. This we see on IIB 81. There is a still more curious one on IIB 20; at the head it has arms like an easy‑chair, the back is high but it slopes down to the sides and rests on four legs, cushions are arranged on the back and within the sides that support the sleeping figure. On IBb 19, there is nothing but a stone bench on which a mattress is laid with a bolster; in this case we can see the resemblance to a pendapa foundation. Sometimes not even a foundation or bench of any sort is given and the sleeper merely laid down on a mat; this is actually done on Ia 13 to queen Maya, the future mother of the Bodhisattva.

Thrones and seats there are plenty of, in all shapes and sizes. The simplest kind is the square undecorated pedestal we find very often, which even when it is improved with some ornament so as on IBa 191 or II 30 and 51, is nothing more than a block of stone or wood with the figure seated on it cross‑legged. It can be made more comfortable by adding a mattress and bolster as the woman in no. 51 does; the chief‑person on II 89 does not even require the pedestal but sits on the floorofhispavilion with just a mattress and bolster. Out‑of‑doors it may be necessary to give this kind of seat a small roof supported on pillars; the roof is in most cases flat but occasionally in the shape of an arched niche (O 42) or finished with a three‑cornered pediment (O 79).

Both kinds of seats, pedestal‑ or chair‑shaped, can have a back which is nearly always without arms. The construction may be quite simple, merely a cross‑piece ending in a couple of knobs supported by two straight legs, more or less ornamented, and generally in the design of makara‑heads at the ends. In this last style is the empty throne prepared on Ia 87 for the Buddha, with a large bolster on it; further on, Ia 105, he is seated on one of a plain shape with a back and a very elaborate pedestal so we see that chair‑back and legs andpedestal are not always equally decoraf ed. Examples of distinctly handsome seats on a pedestal are found among others, on Ib 118 and 57, both in makara‑design; on the first‑mentioned it has become conventionalized into tendrils; the throne on legs, Ib 79, has a bold rich makara decoration, where we see behind the elephant‑heads the same spiral or tendril Ornanlent familiar to us with staircase and gateway makara's. On Ib 13, seats are to be seen with a pedestal and with legs, side by side. Sometimes no pedestal at all can be seen and the back seems to rest on the ground so as Ib 79 shews us. In such cases both mattress and bolster are desirable, see II 62; there are many instances of this sort. Here are nearly always bolsters at the back, though little can be seen of the mattress or cushions; notice one special instance on III 41, where a pattern of squares is discernible. In front of the pedestal there is often a cloth hanging down.

There are very few examples of arm‑chairs. On IIB9 and 89 both scats are empty, placed ready with a cushion; possibly such chairs were in more general use than would appear by these two instances, and the sculptors preferred to show their figures more distinctly without arms to the chair. A cushion by itself without any chair appears on IBb 92, and on IV 41 there is a cushion laid on top of a lotuscushion, therefore evidently intended for a Buddha or Bodhisattva. Sometimes on the top of the chairback there is a semicircle (IV B 2) or a niche (IB a 167) introduced; in one case (O 27) a separate decoration is seen behind the whole seat, apparently not attached to it; columns at the side and roofed over by an arch shaped like an accolade, with a kale head in the centre and makara ornament turned outwards at the side above the columns.

There are some seats of a different shape worth attention. The empty chair on IIB 27 shows a chairback with open work in squares on the back between two pillars; on the top of the chairback in the middle is a threecornered ornement in the shape of an antefix, while the usual ornamcnt at the ends has thec}laracterofacornerantefix.OnIa49thepedestal is not rectangular but hexagonal. No. IV 21 is a very remarkable one, where the pedestal is made like a small temple, it belongs to a Buddha and therefore is not subject to human requirements; the same with the hexagonal throne ornamented with lions, occupied by (;akyamuni on Ia 111. T. ion‑tllrones are quite common, used not exclusively by a Buddha as on IV 26 or a Bodhisattva (II 127, III 12), but also by a woman(II 65, 71, 79, 107, in the last it is goddess). They are always designed with lions supporting the seat or as smaller figures against the foot of the throne. There is one instance where (Ib 113) a man in royal dress is seated on an otherwise ordinary seat with legs, while a small lion appears underneatll in the centre. On II 128, already‑mentioned, there is a figure mounted on two of the four lions under Maitreya's throne; the back is ornamented at each side with the favorite design of a rampant lion on the recumbent elephant's head, while the lion supports the back of the chair with its makara ornament. Such thrones are made specially for the Buddha (Ia 100, 113, II 1); in one instance Cakyamuni's throne is supported by a human figure instead of the lion (Ia 101) and the same variation appears in the empty chair probably intended for a Bodhisattva on IV B 61 and the throne for a human being on II 121.

Besides the large seats and thrones, there are smaller stools and footstools and benches. We have already noticed the low brahman‑stools made in reality of cane; a very plain kind with only one twisted line between the top and bottom, is found on IIB 25, but as a rule it is a curve between two uprights (see for inst. IIB 56, 79, 80, II 124, IIIB 72, 82, 84), sometimes angles instead of curves (II 39). On O 156 a stool of this basket work is being offered as a gift; IIB 83 shews us a very fine specimen. One of the three brahmans on IIB 32 is sitting on a stool like this, the other two on a bench the legs of which are twisted, and turn inwards in a point. A similar kind of bench can be seen on Ib 36; the three‑legged footstool on IIB 21, used by a nurse with a child, is much the same. Besides these uncommon specimens there are some very ordinary ones, just a plank on legs, these can be found on Ib 35 and 38, but there is no reason to mention everything of the kind.

Under the thrones and couches the space is continually used for stowing away small objects. Boxes and chests, square or rectangular, sometimes open, sometimes closed with a more or less arched lid  or fastened round with bands; long cylinder‑shaped packages tied round with flat bands, high jars with wide bottoms, pots and martevans, j ugs with and without a spout, flat basins often piled up together, cups and goblets of earthenware with and without lids, dishes with wreaths on them, round boxes and all sorts of tilings. They are to be seen on nearly all reliefs where there is a chance to put them in and we may consider that in such details the sculptors probably depicted reality, only the place may‑ be due to the fact that the space under the seats was very appropriate for such paraphenalia. The contents are seldom definable, when it can be seen they hold something. The most distinct are the chests, bowls and trays holding valuables, rings and coins forinstance on O 113, 127, and IBb 20; on the last scene they are not under the seat but being offered as a gift. On Ib 19 leaves are hanging out of the opened box with a lotusflower here and there among them; on O 73 we see an open dish with a comb on it, next to this is a basin with a lid and a couple of balls; Ia 54 has wreaths and O 30 fruit on it. For further utensils of this kind placed under the seat see O 6, 11, 18, 27, 43, 65, 70, 116, 125, Ia 60, lb 71, but they can be found almost everywhere.

Dishes and bowls besides those found on the ground, are seen in the hands of persons who appear in the scenes, first of all the small bowl carried by one of the attendants in the retinue of all persons of distinction, just in the same way as the sirih‑utensils at a later period. This vessel is nearly always as if folded in shape, rather narrow at the bottom, and widening out at the top, in a few instances (IV 55 and others) it is high and narrow. It is also to be seen in unfolded form, like a flat bowl rectangular or round. The contents is seldom to be seen, but sometimes there is something sticking out over the edge, not always the same. We see things like leaves and also loops either separate or together; in every case where the contents are visible, we see also two rather pointed hook‑like pieces bent over the edge and in most instances these objects are the only ones discernible or far more distinct than the others. I give some examples: hooks III 23 and 43; leaves, Ib 76; leaves and hooks II 23; loops and hooks IV 56, loops and leaves (square ones) IIB 54 and 55. Notice IIIB 23, where as well as leaves and hooks, a kind of rosette with loops at the four sides appears. \Ve might think that in spite of the variation in the contents of these vessels, they are all intended to hold the same ingredients, one or other of which happens to shew over the edge. IIIB 44 is quite an exception, there a necklace is hanging out of the bowl.

I have just alluded to the set of sirih utensils; it has actually been suggested l), that these folded vessels contain betel‑leaves and that betel‑chewing was already a custom in Java at this period. This is certainly not impossible, for already in the fourth century in Further India, pinang with chalk and betel was being used; but on the other handin the seventh century, the part of Sumatra visited by I‑tsing only made use of pinang mixed with spices  and sirih‑chewing in Javais first reported in 1416. The exact truth therefore can not be established and the varying contents of these vessels on the reliefs, makes it advisable to leave the question undecided.

All other bowls and dishes, sillier held in the hand or placed beside or among the figures are nearly always, when the contents are discernable, filled with flowers and wreaths. Examples can be seen on Ia 74, 78, 81, 107, 120, Ib 27, 55, 85, 103, 120, IBb 117, 127, IIB 32, II 27, 37, 44, 49, 52, 57, III 8, 43, 68, IVB 36, 65. These flowers and wreaths appear on every possible occasion, paying homage, receiving audience, religious ceremonies, and in Bali at the present day it can be seen how this tradition has been preserved, even to the way of piling up the wreaths into a pyramid such as those on Ia 109, Ib 39, II 8. Jeweled ornaments, especially bracelets for the upper arm are to be seen, held ready or offered as gifts, on trays, forinst. Ia 9, 16, 17, 26, IBa 1. The flat dishes being held slantwise as on O 70, Ia 98, II 73, is probably due to the wish for letting the contents, some sort of ornamental figure with a frame round it (is it a cake?) be plainly visible. At distributions as will be seen later on, there are trays with jewels, rings, moneybags, garments and such like, prepared for distribution. Jugs with a spout are also quite common. For peculiarities that appear only once like the dish with the bowl full of something between two small objects on O 43 or Ia 9, see the description of the reliefs themselves. A pot or bag of peculiar shape like a paperbag is strewn on O 54 and IBa 326 b.

Vessels that appear continually either in the hands of persons or standing about lamps and incense‑burners,which are not very easily distinguished from one another; the waving line seen above them may just as well be a flame as the smoke of incense. They must generally be meant for incensories, as the scenes nearly always represent daylight.When held in the land, the person very often has a little fan in the other hand to rouse tl~e flame. These objects are of all sorts; small and elegant (Ia 5, 21, III 43), rather larger end of an elaborate model (II 4, 5, 13, III B6, IV 26, 36), then very plain (Ia 100), with a flat top (IBa 232), a heavier top (Ib 83, IV 17), a short squat shape (O 81, IV 33). Occasionally there is one without any stem Ib 85, or in contrast, a very tall thin one like a torch (Ia 59). Sometimes there is an incense‑burner with a handle at the side for carrying it, as on Ia 114, IIB 68, II 81. The standing incenscburners are generally the same shape as the above‑mentioned, except those with the handle (see Ia 18, 24, 69—71, 74, 92, 106, Ib74, IBa 80, 167, 235 etc. II 99, III 14, 47, IVB 72, 73); as flay are not intended to be carried, we find also larger (O 125, IBb 33, 128), taller (II 83) and thicker ones (III 21, IVB 50, IV 15); besides these there is now and then one, not in use and closed with a lid, as on II 22. Very curious in shape is the incensory on III 61, with a wide square ornamented top on a slender stem and the one on IVB 55, with a large censer in the centre and a smaller one at each side. Large lamps with branches for several lights are found occasionally near buildings as on O 24 and 155; let me here recall attention to the extraordinary temple with lamps or incense‑burners on III 25, which of course cannot represent any real building. Finally IIB 20 is important; it shews us a sleeping room, and on each side a hanging‑lamp with its oil‑vessel in a bracket, the very same as specimens that have been dug up in Java; here we have undoubtedly before us an existing example of the means of lighting. On that same relief there is a bracket hanging to the ceiling of the room containing a bowl with a scalloped edge, attached to a centre piece and strewing a point on each side that looks as if it might be a flame and the whole object a lamp, though we cannot be certain of it).

Vases are also very important utensils, used for flowers, especially for lotuses both red and blue. These are often very simple in shape, round and undecorated as on O 78 and Ia 91; in the same style as when used as roof‑ornaments (II 80, 82). The round‑bodied shapeis also found decorated, with a band round the middle as on IV 65, moreover ornamented on the side of neck and foot as II 30. A taller, more slender shape is less common, see Ia 6, 88, just as the very high narrow sort on III 68. The most ordinary shape is a vase that widens~out right below the neck and then goes narrower to the foot, see O 66, Ia 54, II 2, III36, IVB 44, IV 20; with ornamented band round the middle II 62. These are all without spout; but cases with a spout are quite as numerous. Among them as well the shape just‑mentioned is more common, wider at the top and going narrower at the bottom, such as Ia 97,107, Ib 73, IBa 80, 269, II 25) 76, III 3, IVB 24.13ut there is also a slenderer kind of these, see I13a 191, II 14, and a fat‑bodied sort, II 78. FIONVCrS are often placed in shells (turbinella's) fixed on a trivet as on Ia 92, 96, 108, Ib 1, IBa 290, III 26; these are also to be seen empty, f. i. IBa 85, II 39, or used as holywater font as seen above. Basins of a shell shape \Vit}lOUt a stand also appear, as on O 1 50; trivets with an ordinary vessel, IBa 1 1 8.

Other domestic utensils have mostly already been described, such as are used for cooking, at meals and drinking‑bouts; I shall only mention here some peculiarities of shape etc. We have noticed martevan shaped pots among the vessels placed under seats; the same sort of thing, good examples of which can be seen on O 2 and 19, are the large jars in which valuables are kept, more or less varied in form. Jewelpots are found on IBa 60, III 15, IVB 32, 74 and especially III B 64, where the lids are furnished with large rings as handles. There are some very large jars of valuables on IBa 267, and though only partly visible, on IBb 24; in this last case the contents are not disclosed. Various kinds of vessels are placed together on O 80 and 128 and a large round one with a lid that is ornamented on Ia 84. Small basin‑like dishes are used on O 10 and 42, little bowls O 154; small round basins with a lid on IBa 29, little round pots on O 37 and with round stoppers Ib 88, a bottle shape, II 25, an ordinary gendi on O 80 and 82; besides these the hermit's water jug that has already been mentioned. Vases with a spout of curious shape can be found on O 32 with a very bulky body, Ib 37, with a very, wide mouth, IBb 83 of extremely large size. For a teapot shape though the spout is not visible, see IIB 21, this may be just a pot without a spout. A dish in the shape of a boat we see on III 52; with scalloped edge on IVB 61, tall and narrow, IBa 207. Among the standing vessels we see one withaveryfinepedestal on II 49 and on IIB 15 another handsome specimen with sides in a design of narrow upright leaves. The jug with a lid rather like a beermug with two handles, is quite unique on IVB 61. As for spoons, besides with the cooking pots, they can be seen on O l 9, IBb 79, and IVB 10, in this last scene it is being used to serve from a plate with.

There are still a few uncommon objects the reliefs shew us that must be noticed; the real use of some of them is difficult to define; some attempt to do so was made in describing the separate reliefs. The contents of the tall j at on O 2, a stick or handle, the top part of a cylindrical object fastened by a knob and a round dish witl1 a lid, are three things that seem to belong together and perhaps have something to do with the sick child on the couch above them .There is an undefinable object being presented on O 150; it seems to consist of two round dishes fastened together, each having a lid, possibly the same thing as the double cocoa‑nut so popular in Java and elsewhere; nor can we identify the object with loops to be seen on IIB 59 above the hermit's waterjug, it looks like an areca‑pincher, if it were not for tile little bag hanging to it, a sort of butterfly net. Large corded bales shaped like a sugar‑loaf on IBb 83, and round ones on IIB 11, are put away in a store‑room, evidently provisions of some sort. Not as mysteries but unique curiosities, I recall attention to the parcel tied up with cross‑bands on IBb 12, and the extraordinary manner in which someone on IV 36 is making an offering of flowers on a tray resting on a long handle.

Next we come to the various trades and occupations represented. There is not much to be learned about them from scenes among the higher and highest class of people as most of these are. Agriculture, to begin with, only appears in a few scenes. Two of these shew us ploughing, IBa 336, and (unfortunately very dilapidated) IBb 2. The plough is drawn by a pair of bulls, the yoke resting on the shoulder in front of the hump, with a collar round each beast's neck. The plough itself is the ordinary primitive square shape, by which one side scrapes along the ground and forces the ploughshare into the earth; the other side sticks up with the top bent over to the back and guided by the hand of the ploughman who walks behind and directs it with his left hand, holding a stick in his right. On the first of these reliefs we can see plainly the bands that hold the ploughshare. There are no other scenes of ploughing; a man with an ox but without any plough appears on IIIB 1. In connection with agriculture O 65 should be noticed, where a couple of men are keeping guard under a grain‑shed next to a field of maize that is ravaged by rats.

As for craftsmanship the most remarkable scene is the bridgebuilding on IV 46. The bridge is being laid over a swiftly‑flowing river, and is apparently made of bamboo; though the relief is rather damaged and the bridge is far too small in proportion to the men who are working at it, yet the sculptor shows clearly how he intends to construct it. It must be/ taken from life, for in the interior of the country it can be seen at the present day that these kind of bridges are still used. It is three‑cornered in shape; bamboo‑poles, fixed into the ground on both banks of the stream! and bound firmly together at the top, form tile two sides and hold the N base that is the actual bridge. The workmen are just fixing it at the top; the tools that some of them have near them are not distinctly to be seen, but the pickaxe on the Bodhisattva's shoulder is quite clear. The square tools carried by the men on O 5, 118, 122, and IBa 154 have been taken for ploughs, but most likely they are the beams for the carpenter; if this is correct,—the relief at Prambanan where workmen are making the scaffold for a cremation makes it probable)—, then the tools that look like crow‑bars, carried by the men on IBa 154, together with the beams, probably also belong to the carpenter's work.

Another example of work that can be clearly understood is the potter's on IBb 107. On one side we see the jars already made, on the other side the potter is at work, using a flat stick to get a good shape. Bearers with carrying‑poles are bringing large round balls, it may be clay or gourds with water. Women and children are looking on just as natives always do. The same is to be seen on Ib 98, but it is not possible to make out distinctly what is going on. An old man with a square hammer is hitting a small object that he holds between his thumb and forefinger on a kind of carpenter's bench; another man has a tool like a chisel in his hand and seems to be working at some small objects that are laid in front of him on a broad flat block. On Ib 51 craftsmen are probably making the little kinnara's that seem to figure in the story; one of them is working at these images with a straight stick, another has a bow‑shaped tool in his hand, a third is hacking at a long piece of wood with a sort of pickaxe. In another scene, O 30, a man is sitting with a tool on his shoulder that looks like a hammer, perhaps an adze to judge by one edge being blunt the other sharp; he is not using it so that we cannot see what work it is made for.

In describing Ib 2 I remarked that the man who walks in front of the troop going into the forest, holding a peculiar kind of knife first bent into a right angle and then having a broad curved point, must be there to cut out a path: the same kind of knife with the name "siwah" is still in use in the Lampongs l) and found in Madura as well, while several kinds of kudi shapes shew unmistakeable resemblance to it. Grass cutters are always easily recognised by their tied‑up b~mdles of grass and their tool, on O 117 a reaping‑hook, on IBa 21, a sickle. For Ia 90, we must rely on the text that the man is a grass‑cutter, for he is pulling it with his hands, not cutting, supposing the relief is correctly identified.

In the series on the buried base, twice we come across a man whom we are in doubt about, whether he belongs to the handicrafts or trade. He appears on O 39, 50 and 97, with a stand made of bamboo that has a semicircular lump of something on it, and legs formed by poles that split into prongs at the bottom so that it can be carried OI1 the owner's back or fixed up in the ground. Such portable stalls are not uncommon; they are still found in use nearly the same in construction, for instance in Middle‑Sumatra. What there is on them is not very distinct; on O 39 there seem to be a couple of fishes hanging at the side, on O 97 a pair of birds are next to it. In the first case we might take the man to be a travelling food‑seller and the round object would be the basket‑cover kept over the food, but neither of the reliefs shew anything to confirm this idea, and the birds make us think they may have been the objects preserved under the cover. Moreover the "basket" on 50 is so flat that it does not look like a basket, but more like a whetstone. In short, it is better not to guess about it; possibly these are not always meant for the same kind of traders.

A real merchant or trader is certainly to be seen in Maitrakanyaka on Ib 106 and 107. In the first scene he is not actually shopkeeping but just handing over the profits to his mother, but the jars standing near to her may of course contain some of his wares. No. 107 however certainly represents a shop, only we are not able to make out which of his continually flourishing businesses it is meant to be. As far as the damaged state of the relief allows, we may take it to be the goldsmith's. The purchaser seated opposite to the merchant, is holding a pair of scales, in one scale there is a ring and in the other there seems to be a bag of money. Between the two persons there is a bundle of something like sticks and a round bulky pot. A few pieces of stuff are hung over a rail, out of place in a goldsmith's, shop as we must hesitate to call it.

According to the text the chief person on II 118 should also be a merchant but here he seems to be dispensing only edifying discourse with little attention to business; in front of him is a small table on legs that surely would have given us some information, if its whole top had not been knocked off. Though Ib 56, the Cibi‑jataka,isnotbyanymeansashopkeeping scene, it must be mentioned in this place for its large weighing machine, a cross‑beam resting on two posts to which the actual weighing‑instrument is fastened in the centre, a balance with two scales. It is ornamented here and there, as befits a thing in royal use; some examples that have been dug up are also finely‑worked.

The men we see carrying various things in a yoke may often be streetvendors, but sometimes they are on other errands, as for instance the man on Ib 41 who is taking home the corn that fell from heaven in a miraculous shower) and the one O 1, who is carrying away the fish caught in the tunnel‑traps). Then again O 50 where a man iscarrying his goods in this way, while another bears a load on his head; on this relief notice the sort of little roof that is fastened to the carriers yoke to protect him and his wares from the sun. Then look at the little round pots on O 37, or the square trays with feet and conical cover on O 43. Waterbearers carry their jar in their hand or on the head, as strewn Ib 16 or IBa 221, but in the last scene we see the larger jars are being carried in a yoke.

There were of course literary men and artists in the society here depicted, as some of the scenes shew. Reliefs have already been described where teaching is going on; I will now mention scenes where books appear, O 77, 79—82, 84; 85, Ia 3, 38, IBb 72, 110, 126, 128, IIB 7, 8, 25, 33, 34, III 56, IIIB 8, 9. The books correspond to the well‑known kropak shape; they open into loose leaves held in the hand, and when closed are bound round in the usual way with bands; three straight ones at both ends or across the middle or slantwise across the whole book. Sometimes a rosette can be seen, probably an ornament on the cover. When necessary, books are laid on stands or trays or may be, if IBb 10 really shows a book D, on a small three‑legged table. Once or twice at homagepaying ceremonies, objects are being carried which look like two books tied together with cross‑bands; they are really larger than ordinary books, so perhaps only meant for oblong boxes; there is of course no reason why only books should be tied together in this way. These things are found on II 55 and III 49. An unfolded letter, oblong in shape with an edge to it, is to be seen on Ib 65.

We see that portraits were not unknown, by Ib 22 and 23, and Ib 70 where a portrait of the Buddha though rolled up and not visible is being escorted with due honor and respect by a procession. There is a small carved Bodhisattva image in a niche on the roof of a building on III 34; Ib 54 probably shews us a picture in painting also fixed on the upper storey of a building).

Hunting and fishing, however much forbidden by the Buddhist creed and included in the crimes punishable by hell, as we see by the reliefs on the buried base, were naturally common enough in the not altogether Buddhist Java; we need not be surprised to find scenes of this kind often enough on Barabudur, where several of the jataka's are stories of the chase. In contrast to these there are a few instances where animals that have been caught are set free again, as on O 9 and IV 43.

Fishing is done in various ways. On O l, only tunnel‑traps are being used;
the traps are just being emptied, they are the same as what we use now-a‑days with a wide opening, then narrowing to the end. The same thing is in use on O 118, but at the same time two other ways of fishing are going on, the fishing‑rod at any rate is plainly to be seen. The second way seems to be with a scoop; the man stands ready with a round wooden scoop open at the end w hich he manages with his left hand, holding in his right a rope that runs through two holes in the sides of the scoop close to the open end; the way of fishing is evidently to steer the scoop with the left hand so that it comes under the fish and then pull the rope up suddenly so that it cannot get away. An apparently simple manner of fishing that requires considerable skill. On O 109 two men are at work with a large draw‑net they are pulling through the water.

Hunting of the simplest kind can be seen on the reliefs of the buried base; smoking out rats on O 87, bird‑killing, with club and blow‑pipe, of small birds on O 91; of larger birds with bow and arrow on O 1 18. On IBa 79 a swan is being caught levity a snare as we know from the text, but there is nothing to be seen of it on the relief. But on IIB 64 it is very distinct how the hunter is laying snares to catch a peacock.

Monkeys on IBa 102 and 199 are hunted with bow and arrow as well as with blow‑pipe, but bow and arrow is always the favorite weapon. The hunters on Ib 3 and IBb 4 have no other weapon, and kings who go hunting use nothing but bow and arrows. So the kings on Ib 89 and IBa 74, each with a small retinue, both have bow and arrows as well as the monarch on IBa 97 and the one who is on horseback on IBa 90—93; in the case of these two last we can see what they are hunting; a deer and a carabha respectively. There is often a whore huntingpartydepictedentering the forest; the men on IBb 71, who are chasing the deer end those on IIB 57, who are after deer and wild boars, have bow and arrows as their chief weapon, though in the last scene there are one or two with swords, who might belong to the guard and therefore probably are not meant for hunters. With a royal hunting‑party we may of course find an armed escort sometimes, but bow and arrows are never missing, they are evidently the weapons of the chase. The king himself is often seen on horse‑back, the animals he hunts are either deer and wild boar or only deer. The royal hunting parties alluded to are found on Ib 93, 99, 1 14 and IBb 111. Archery was undoubtedly held in high honor and we can easily understand that when the hero of some of the stories has to give proof of his accomplishments, shooting with the bow is one of the tests, for the great Siddhartha on Ia 49, and for others on Ib 17 and 119.

As to animals used for riding, the famous horse Kanthaka who carries his
master, the future Buddha, at the Great Departure, is to be found on Ia 64-7. This horse is treated in the usual careless manner of the Barabudur sculptors; on relief 64 and 67 it is quite bare, on 65 it has nothing but a band round its forehead and the Boddhisattva is sitting without any bridle, his legs drawn up on a saddle that also appears to be quite unattached to the animal's back and is flat in shape; on 66 however the horse has a bit and bridle as well as a saddle with a high back, the sort that can only be ridden astride. Both styles of riding are found elsewhere; with legs drawn up on Ib 2 and IBa 90, astride on Ib 93, while the saddles on the horses standing ready on IBa 169 and IBb 111 are also for the ordinary way of riding; Ib 36 is too indistinct to decide about. Besides saddle and bridle horses generally wear an ornamented band with bells round their neck. Judging by the best‑preserved and most carefully finished animals on lBa 91, 93 and lBb 111, there were various styles of harnessing a horse; the saddle fastened with a belly‑band, a strap across the chest and under the tail, and moreover a collar, intended only for ornament and trimmed with bells, we see on IBa 93; but the bells are put on the strap in front of the chest and behind the tail, while there is no separate collar, on IBb I 11. The horse on IBa 91, the very same as the one on 93, has bells on the chest‑strap, no collar and no strap at all under tile tail; in other scenes as well the cropper is not to be seen. Armed horsemen often appear at the head of an important procession when the chief person is carried in a palanquin or on an elephant, as on Ib33, II 42, 54; and there are postilions on the horses of a carriage on Ia 39 and II 46.

The animal of state and ceremony is of course the elephant. Horses and elephants are seen together in a royal procession (IIB 17), or standing in readiness in the retinue of distinguished persons (Ia 31, 39, Ib 91, II 26); the mahout with his angkuca often sitting on its neck. In the same way elephants without horses are fount! Ia 16, III 85, IV B 82. They generally wear a band round the forehead with a three‑cornered ornamentin the centre of it, and very often a cloth thrown over their back. The elephant on Ia 16 has a bell Formal its neck end two other bells hanging on either side of its body; but the one on Ib 39, 91, has bells all round its collar and along the strap that goes roused its chest and body and under the tail; there is also a collar with bells on IBa 37.

All these various kinds of bell‑ornaments, the single one on the collar, the collar with bells all round it, the cropper as well, the side straps with single bell hanging from it, are also to be seen when the elephant has a seat or a howdah on its back and then sometimes there are bells along the bottom of the seat. The usual way of fastening the seat is either by two straps both passing under the animal's belly or by three, the middle one round the belly and the others going in front of the chest and under the tail. The chair is generally nothing but a seat with back and arms, sometimes open so that a cushion can be seen in it, as on II 97 and III 87, or else closed, with higher back and sloping arms as on III 3; or a sort of tray, with sides more or less ornamented, see Ib 14, 20, 92, III 9. A higher shape of the open sort, fixed on to a separate bottom piece, is strewn on III 20; something different is on Ib 70: here the man riding on the elephant is sitting in a box closed on all four sides and ornamented with pilasters, while the seat has back and arms as well. Another on III 50 is square and has a roof supported by pilasters; this is used for carrying dishes filled with what looks like wreaths and flowers. On II 54 we find the most handsome specimen of the seat on an elephant's back; first the bottom part made in framework with pilaster ornament on it, then the back resting on curved feet and then the slender delicately‑shaped pilasters that support the roof with a ridge and a bell at each end.

Palanquins are also used for travelling; several times when describing the reliefs in detail we noticed that even where the text required some other vehicle, the sculptor has depicted a palanquin, a fact that may be due chiefly to the lesser space it would require in the picture, but also because he was accustomed to seeing these vehicles in use around him.

The most primitive kind of palanquin is strewn on IFla 75; it is no more than a piece of cloth fastened to two poles and borne on the shoulders of four men, the person carried sitting only on the cloth hanging between the two poles. The kind most commonly used isratherdifierent; a flat board on two carrying poles with a back to it that is not always distinctly strewn; there are generally eight bearers to this. On the reliefs the person carried is always placed facing the spectator while the palanquin is left in profile; the result is that the back of the seat behind the figure is fixed on the side, not on the back of the vehicle. It is difficult to believe that this was so in reality; probably the sculptor, to do justice to his figures, ignored the construction of the palanquin. The back, like that of other chairs, is more or less ornamented; the design is chiefly makara at the ends of the cross‑piece. This style is to be seen on O 150, Ib 33, 81, IBa 39, 51, 123, IIB 17. An empty palanquin without a back is standing ready on IIB 86, it is nothing but a seat with a back and front edge with holes for the bamboo carrying poles. Occasionally we find handsomer specimens than the ordinary sort, these have arms as well as back and often twelve bearers, see IIB 83, 88, III 10. No less than sixteen men are needed to carry the splendid large palanquin on II 42, it has high sides at the front and back of the seat, decorated with a panel and pilaster, and the roof has an edge of antefix‑ornament round it. If these panels belong in reality to the front and back or to the sides, we cannot be sure.

The carriages drawn by horses are all four‑wheeled and with only one exception there are a pair of horses (having collars with bells as well as saddles); the wheels have always eight spokes. Besides this there is some further variety. One sort of vehicle looks just like an armchair with wheels fixed under it; this is to be seen Ia 66 and 57. It does not look very serviceable and we can see that the sculptor got into difficulties with the coachman. The whole carriage is only a seat for the chief person, therefore no room was left for the driver on the vehicle itself; he has been placed behind the horses, that is the upper part of his body appears there and only because no legs are to be seen do we realize that he is not standing but supposed to be sitting on something. On other reliefs where evidently the same kind of carriage is represented, the seat is fixed on a wide body that ends in a shaft, there is room on this for a servant to sit behind the seat and for the coachman, with another servant if required, in front. Tllis sort will be found on Ia 58, 59 and IBb 38; on the two first reliefs the end of the shaft is ornamented with a small lion and on the last there is a banner fixed on it. A1l the scenes mentioned so far shew the chief person seated facing the spectator and the carriage in profile.

The chariot strewn on IBa 290, without horses and flying through the air, is nothing more than a square box on four wheels. The one on Ia 27 has a large high body decorated on the outside with panels of beautiful tri,cula‑cal~ra design and on this reclines the queen to whom the carriage belongs among her cushions, with a higher back and lower arms to her seat. The shaft ends in a curved flowerbud; the coachman is mounted on one of the horses.

The carriages next to be discussed are covered and all have the coachman riding as postilion, except Ia 34 where he drives his four in‑hand sitting on the shaft. This shaft has a flag on it, just like Ia 39; in both cases the vehicle is the same sort found on IVB 17; a flat body with pillars at the flour corners supporting the canopy; the back of the seat has ornamental balusters round it. In the first two scenes an armed guard is sitting at the back of the carriage.

There are one or two examples of something again different. First that on IIl3 65, where a peacock is being carried to its destination, and where the whole affair perhaps has nothing to do with reality; the cart has a wide high body in frame‑work and on that are the massive pilasters that support the roof; the peacock is sitting just in the middle but there is no sign of any back or arms as might be expected if it were intended for human beings. The one on II 46 also looks anything but real; it is in fact a pavilion, such as eminent persons so often sit in on these reliefs, put on wheels. The sides are unnecessarily thick and set on a foundation like that of a building, the roof with antefixes and crowned with a gem is all quite out keeping with a travelling carriage; maybe the artist has been tempted to give the Bodhisativa something worthy of him for the journey, a sort not used by ordinary mortals. There is a carriage with very strong sides on Illb 46 as well, though the top of it has disappeared.

We now come to the conveyance by water, the ships.

The simplest vessel, the djukung, is nothing more than a hollowed out tree trunk; this is shown on two reliefs, Ia 1 15, and Ib 82, in the first scene it is being used as a ferry‑boat. There it has a characteristic curved stem flattened horizontally at the top; the line of the stern is vertical, with a sloping flattening, a shape that is still seen in the Archipelago with this kind of boat. There is a projecting piece under the stern that must not be regarded as a keel,—boats like this have a more or less round bottom, not a keel—it is nothing more than a strengthening of the stern to support the pressure of the rudder. The rudder itself is the old double sort slung at the head and lashed on each side of the stern. An awning on four poles is fastened to the vessel and on the roof of this is a long pole with what seems to be a forked end (the relief is there damaged); another pronged pole is fixed in the river‑bank; to this tile boat is fastened with a rope. The prong might be intended to lean on while punting, but more likely it is meant to prevent the pole from getting stuck. The it ukung on Ib 82 is drawn up on land and being loaded with valuables. The bow of this one is pointed, the rudder is not seen outside the stern, it has probably been pulled up because the boat is not in the water; this part of the relief is too much damaged to see distinctly. The "strengthening" can be seen here as well.

The outrigger ship can be seen on five reliefs. This type with its high stem and stern resembles the kura‑kura of the Moluccas that are mentioned in the earliest descriptions of European travellers; they were i built there in large size already before the arrival of Europeans. 

First the one strewn on Ib 86. The outriggers are made of a compound float, held in position by three straight and three curved booms, on the top of the float are crossrails, maybe to hold them in the sloping position or perhaps intended as seats for the crew in a strong wind to give the vessel more stability, as is still the custom at the present day. There are openwork bullwarks fore and aft made of round spars sloped upwards as if to break the force of the waves. There is a gallery built out over the stern with a sailor on it, a construction that also appears at Ajanta, used by tile crew when cargo fills up the boat as well as for working and storing the anchors. At stem and stern we see the wings with the peculiar "eyes" under them, the one possibly as symbol of speed, the other keeping watch over the water—these are also found at Aj an. f. a and are quite common in the Archipelago on the kura‑kura's in the East corner of Java, the prahu's at Batavia, the Chinese junks etc. The rudder is placed on one side of the stern, perhaps there was another at the other side. A deck‑house with an awning is between the two masts; the front angst is the largest, both consist of two spars raked forward, rigged by ropes fore and aft; on other reliefs strewing outrigger ships it can be seen that the masts have rungs for going aloft. The top of the mast where the two points join and where the ropes run through, is bent back and has a tuft‑shaped ornament that rescrnbles the bundles of coloured string or fibre on the pedukawangs of Macassar. Both masts have a square‑sail, at the bow is another sail, something like the "blinde" on old Dutch vessels; it seems to be threecornered, fastened at the top to the washstrake with one brace to the bowsprit and the other on the portside.

After this detailed description, the other outrigger ships may be treated concisely. On lb 88 they are rowing, the six oars can be seen, the rowers are evidently 'tween decks. The wings are only visible in front where the washstrake has a curious buffer; the second mast seems to be a single spar; the tops of the masts are ornamented with carvings). In Ib 108 there is a small boat in front of tile big vessel, probably meant for landing the passengers and crew.

The outrigger of the large ship has four pairs of booms, while the top of the float to w hich some one is holding, is single; besides the oars some of the rowers' heads can be seen. At the foremast the coupling block of the two spars with the holes for the ropes is quite distinct. Notice the flags at bow and stern and the pennant in the top of the larger mast, it shows the direction of the wind, the same as the puffed‑out sails. The sail at the bow, fastened on two yards, is square and required two bowsprits, at the end of the one in sight sits a sailor holding one of the braces; here is also some circular object with a sort of rosette not yet identified. The little boat looks very like the djukungs but has a higher deck; the ship is onemasted, with a square sail, and sailors are holding the braces attached to the end of the yards. The "eyes" can be seen too on the bow of the vessel.

We get a smaller outrigger ship on Ib 53, without a deckhouse and with not such elaborate washstrakes; they are made of single curved booms and a double latticed floating. The wings and eyes are very distinct; there is a man at the helm. N office the rowlocks, the railing leaning inwards,the ~Damboo washstrakes at bow and stern and the gratings fixed on them. The masts consist of two poles and the rungs can be seen; there is an ornament like a four‑leaved clover in front of the bowsprit, talc same sort of object which appeared on the preceding relief. The sailors are taking in sails, the one at the bow has evidently been taken down. The last of the outrigger ships is on II 41, a one‑masted ship, the deck house very distinct; oars and heads of the rowers here also to be seen, the position of the head shews that the rowing is done by pushing not pulling. The coupling of the mast has a cushion shaped block on it; something different arc the short derricks or round poles on the deck fore and aft, the latter with a flag on it. There is no bowsprit, perhaps there was no room for it. Here too the sails are being lowered, the washstrakes fore and aft are rcmarkably high on this boat.

Finally we get three vessels, strong enough to do without outriggers; they are something like the djanggolan's of ILast Java, e.g. in the row of small blocks (or beam heads?) on the outsicle. Talc line of the bow is sloping, the stern vertical, the same as in the djukungs; Clay arc all onemasted and the mast is not compound. The rudder is not strewn. On Ib 23 part of the crew are hoisting or loo cring the sails on the mast' others are fishing. Below the blocks is SOlilC circular decoration. The ship on IB a 54 is very much damaged, it has one mast and a bellying square sail with a sailor sitting on its lower yard. The vessel on IBa 193, where a drowning man is being hauled on board, seems to be a little different to the others, there is evidently a gallery built out over the stern, on which a man is standing who might be the helmsman. The bow also seems to have a gallery, the beam heads are missing. The mast has a square sail, is raked forward and rigged fore and aft.

Mr. van Erp concludes in his review that evidently the largest kind of seaboats were built with outriggers and these were principally used for traffic. In contrast to Hornell's view that the winged vessels on Barabudur represent a local Javanese type, he considers these vessels in general have a Hindu character, but the compound masts shew Indonesian influence, perhaps to be traced to Mongolian origin.

Taking all together the boats on Barabudur offer a notable contribution to our knowledge of the shipping of those times, the morevaluable because the larger‑sized outrigger vessels with rowlocks and highsloping stem and stern have not survived in the present day Archipelago.

We shall now see what Barabudur has to shew us about the religious observances in Hindu‑Javanese life, such as belong to homage, publicworship and that kind of thing. Passing over the homage‑paying to stupa's, we need not be surprised at there being so few data to be gathered. The following of the Five or the Ten Commandments was all that was required from the believer, he might give further proof of his devotion by respectful homage, preferably offerings of flowers, at stupa's or other sanctuaries; but church‑services or officiating priests did not exist. Tantristic practices such as will be described in the last chapter, must have been in use in the Java of those days, but they are essentially the opposite of public worship. Civaism too exacted chiefly from the believer only the paying of homage to the temple‑gods, that is if we may consider the conditions in Middle Java to be the same as those in the Majapahit‑kingdom. In the Nagarakrtagama when king Hayam Wuruk visits Buddhist or Civaistic temples he does nothing more than pay homage to the god of the sanctuary; even in the elaborate description of a religious solemnity like the Craddha of 1362 we are struck by the casual manner in which the priestly ceremonies are treated in comparison with the other festivities that appear to be of a very worldly character.

What we see on Barabudur is quite in keeping with this. On relief Ia 35 we find what would be Siddhartha's homage to the gods but, as the story tells, it is they who spring frown their pedestals and do honourto the future Buddha. Other instances of sacred buildings being visited by worshippers shew only how they approach with every sign of respect, their hands often folded in sembah, bringing gifts of incense, flowers and wreaths. One that is identified by its inscription, is O 124, the caityavandana and others are the same; flower‑offerings are brought on O 29 and 152, incense is being burnt as well on IBb 106 and IV B 14. There is a woman performing her devotions inside a building on Ib 27; she lays flowers on an altar next to which stands an incense‑burner. Honour and homage to sacred buildings it may be remembered take up a large part of the chief wall on the third gallery, reliefs 4—7 and in particular the whole series that begins with 20, where all sorts of curious temples are being visited. Although these temples are not supposed to be found on this earth, their worship should be mentioned, but they seem not very much like the ordinary human structure.

Homage‑paying to a stupa is of course a typical Buddhist ceremony; it takes up such an important place in the sacred literature that it is only natural it should so often appear on the Barabudur reliefs. As regards the form of the stupa, the reader must consult the architectural part of this work, I shall describe only the way in which homage was paid. In most cases it is just the same as for other sacred buildings, sembah's with incense, flowers and wreaths, occasionally with fruit as well. See Ib 85, 120, IIB 43, II 45, 96, 98 IV:B 7, 33. On Ib 83 we find there is music added, not without reason, for the text  speaks of a special feast that was connected with the erection of the stupa; IBa 115 as we know shows a brahman sprinkling holy water with his aspergillum.

When describing the series of reliefs on the bottom row of the first balustrade, I called attention to the number of those strewing stupahomage and the many different ways in which it was performed. For the details I refer the reader to that description; we must now notice that besides the variations—again with music on IBb 66 and 90, filled‑up dishes ( ?) on 60, round objects (perhaps cakes ?) on62—, the greater number still keep to the usual manner of doing it with incense and flowers (26, 54, 69, 102, 109, 1 18, while 73 and 1 12 are damaged).

A small kind of stupa on IBa 366 is being sprinkled with water from a flowervase with a spout, a still smaller one on IBa 274 honoured with incense and sembah. These small stupa's we expect may contain the ashes of the dead; and it would appear from IBa 244 and 325 that urns were also used for this purpose, but on comparing these with IBa 272, it seems that the vessel so much like an urn with a lid, is really an open dish with something ballshaped on it. The miniature stupa's on IBb 13 do not apparently receive any homage; perhaps these are the small stupa's that, as we know from the texts, were made because their manufacture conferred benefits on the maker; such little stupa's have actually been dug up in Java. Also worthy of notice is the curious, very much damaged altar with an urn or whatever it may be, on IBa233b. There is an altar with fire on IIB 85 apparently being worshipped; this is the only instance, but the same kind of altar can be seen at an adjurationonIb3;ready for tile selfsacrificing Bodhisattva to immolate himself, at the court on Ib 59, where it is erected for this special reason according to the text, and finally with the hermits on IBa 25 and IIB 60. It is always a square pedestal with blocks of wood on it and a big flame.

Connected with stupa‑homage in so far that its object was the same, being one of the means of acquiring special merit, is the distribution of valuables, money, garments and food to the needy. The scenes are not specially striking; the chief person himself distributes from the trays and dishes held by his servants, or the distribution is done by them under his supervision. Instances of this will be found on O 11, 26, 70—73, 100, 102, 103, Ia 19, 22, 23, 29, Ib 20, 31, 32, 64, IBa 202, 210, 218, IIB 27, 45, II 93, III 44, 70, IIIB 76 and following, IVB 8—12, 19, IV 19, 44, 52.

At the first glance we might think that music was a favorite pastime among the Hindu‑Javanese, it is so often depicted on the reliefs. But we change our opinion on closer examination. In many of the scenes the music is nothing more than an accompaniment, generally to the dancing; when that is not the case, then the performers are nearly always heavenly beings and although this divine music is of course only a repetition of the earthly orchestra, it will not be mere chance that so very few concerts take place in this world. Music does not seem to have played a very important part in Hindu‑Javanese society.

Let us first take the music given by itself, not as an accompaniment. There are to begin with a few instances in the pictures of desa‑life. On O 117 a man is playing on the soling (flute); another next to him has no nlUSiC. But on O 39 in the righthand scene there are some streetmusicians who evidently belong together. One of them has an instrument in his hand that looks like an oblong wooden frame with small staves of metal across it that are struck with a stick. The other holds up an object not easily described, it seems a sort of flat cymbal with three little rods, that have knobs at the end of them, lying on it. It is not being played, so possibly it may not be a musical instrument. The head only of a third man can be seen. There is another group like this on 0 48, a man who most distinctly has the same oblong instrument just‑mentioned, a second holding something quite unrecognizable under his left arm and a third who again shows nothing but his head.

As for the music among the higher classes, we shall begin with the heavenly sort of which there are so many more examples. The first scene on the first gallery begins with a full orchestra for the benefit of the future Buddha in the Tus. ita heaven. It consists of wind, string and thump instruments. These last are represented by cymbals and drums. Drums are numerous of both sorts, that were also common in India and need not here be described; the cylinder shaped sort, and the tub shaped thicker in the middle; the first is carried round the neck and beaten with the hand or a drumstick, the second is always of a large size and stands on the ground, it is only beaten with the hand, but it is also seen in smaller size carried round the neck. We know that only the barrel shaped one, the kendang, remains in use in Java at the present day. The only wind instrument is the german flute; now‑a‑days this is not found in ordinary use, but only witl1 the soldiers at the court of the princes. There are several kinds of string instruments, unfortunately this pert of the relief is rather dama~cd; what we seein the first placeisa kind of stick with a round soundboard at the side of one end, such an instrument can hardly be anything but a monochord; then there arc some like lutes, the ancient vine, with three and with four strings) Which can be seen by the number of screws for regulating the strings in the same way as our violins etc. All these instruments are played with Alec fingers. A sort of either semicircular in shape is very indistinct, it can only be identified with the help of another relief (the only other one where this instrument is shewn, Ia 52).

These same instruments will be found in the hands of heavenly musicians on other reliefs, sometimes with a pair of little bell‑shaped chelimbi that are held one in each hand and belong specially to dance music.

Among the drums sometimes there are some that go narrow in the middle into a sort of hour‑glass shape and some that look like a roundbellied pot with its mouth covered over with drum‑skin.

Orchestras of this kind, more or less complete, are strewn on II 1, 55, 105, 128, IV 10, 37. On the last‑mentioned and on II I, there is also some one blowing on a conch‑shell, as is very likely the case in other scenes, but we are not always able to see exactly what the instrument is they are holding with both hands. It can certainly be identified in the procession on Ib 70 and by comparison with this, probably also on III 50. A remarkable scene is that on IV 7; on one side of tile Buddha seated in the middle, there is an orchestra like the one above described, in which a new instrument appears, a bell hung on a curved stick and played on with a stick; on the other side sits a Bodhisattvawith a conch‑shell, some persons blowing large and small trumpets and one beating with his hand a very small drum of the hour‑glass shape. A bell, this time held in the hand, is being played by one of the gandllarva's who miraculously appear on III B 40; there is a curious combination of two instruments, the chelimbi and a lute very long and narrow in shape, to be found on 0 102. An extraordinary kind of wishing‑tree, strewn on IVB 75, besides bells and flutes bears quite a number of drums.

Kinnara's are often represented playing on the flute and often holding the instrument that we have just supposed to be a monochord. The way in which this same object appears among the attendants in scenes on earth where there is no question of music (see O 143, 157, IBb 65) might incline us to think it must there be something else; but it is quite certain, as the reliefs still to be discussed will prove, that this monochord instrument was also used at earthly concerts, quite apart from the question whether an object of this shape should be identified everywhere as a musical instrument. Among the scenes in the human world O 131 deserves special notice with its large bell hanging on a beam supported by two pillars. Then on Ia 52 there is the music being performed before the future Buddha in the women's apartment; we can recognise lute and either, flute and chelimbi. On O 125 music is going on for the benefit of an eminent man possibly at the dinner‑table, the dishes being brought in look very much like food. Here there are two instruments, both very distinct, a monochord and a lute, this time three stringed. Twice, a band plays at a stupa‑homage; drums and cymbals on Ib 83, drums and flute on IBb 66. These two last instruments with a monochord make up the orchestra on IVB 42, where the attitude of one of the drummers and the man next to him shew the possibility that the music may be only an accompaniment. Drums and cymbals are the chosen instruments for festive processions, see IBa 266, IBb 30, III 50 1), also announcements and proclamations are made with beating of drums, see O 1, IBa 42, IIB 53. A hammer shaped drumstick can be seen in use several times.

As accompaniment the music is used chiefly for the dance; everywhere dancing is depicted we find musicians, with the exception of the instance mentioned here above, the sword‑dance on O 5; even the impromptue dance of the intoxicated persons on O 20 takes place to an accompaniment of drum and monochord. O 39, left, brings us again to the desa; two men stand blowing an instrument that consists of a gourd with three flat pipes fitted into it, evidently the mouth‑organ still used in Borneo and elsewhere. A third man with the same kind of instrument has begun to dance; on the ground we see the cymbal (above‑mentioned with the rods that terminate in a knob, as well as a globe‑shaped object that has a semi‑circular opening, which I am not able to identify. The mouth‑organ appears again on O 53, with a flat lengthening piece sticking out under the musician's arson.

The music that accompanies some anew dancing on IBa 152 is very indistinct, only the drum and flute are distinguishable. In the same scene a wrestling‑match is going on, the music maybe does for both, as we see on O 52 that drum and cymbals are being played at an acrobatic performance. I13b 89 deserves special attention; there is a dance going on, performed by men, to the sound of three instruments. One of these is the gambang so important in connection with the later gamelan, a wooden stand on legs with broad sounding staves on it,played with two sticks, the points of which are wound round 5); the second is a bell on a curved stand played on with a rod; the third, also beaten on with two sticks' that have thick ends, looks like two gongs one above tile other or perhaps one gong on a stand. In this way we have here before us the still very primitive gamelan; this relief giving data for the original form of the later Javanese orchestra may I think prove of real importance for the history of music in Java. A parallel to the gambang is probably to be found on another much later relief, i.e. on the pendapa‑terrace of Panataran dated in A.D. 1375. At any rate this gamelan is not of much importance in the Barabudur‑period and what the reliefs shew us about it, quite agrees with tile Chinese report at a somewhat later date, that the principal music instruments in Java were the (german) flute, drum and "wooden boards", by the last may be meant wooden cymbals or some other kind of instrument.

The numerous scenes in which dancing girls are performing, are very similar and in no way remarkable. The dancer (sometimes there are several together) is often placed on a platform in the well‑known dancing attitudes, she is richly‑dressed, wearing the slendang which she frequently holds with her hand, and has a wreath or diadem‑shaped headdress. The music consists always of drums, mostly the pot‑shaped ones; occasionally these are the only accompaniment, but sometimes the tubshaped and once the hour‑glass sort are to be seen as well as flute and cymbals. There are generally more women present, probably other dancing girls, with chelimbi and often there is also a man in brahman dress who seems to be beating time with his hands; in some cases he also has the chelimbi. These dancing reliefs are: O 72, 149, Ia 95, Ib 19, IBa 45 46, 233, 300, 318, IBb l, 43, 51, IIB 44, III 65.

As far as we are able to judge there are no religious dances among them, they appear to be performed for the amusement of eminent persons. There is one relief strewing the game of backgammon, this is IBb 80; it is fully discussed in the description of that relief.

I shall restrict my review to these main points. It may be sufficient to give an idea of the wealth of material the 13arabudur reliefs possess for the study of details and at the same time how little we really know which points among what we see before us, are those that should form the data for further investigation and which are of minor importance. For this reason I have refrained from mentioning all kinds of particulars and given only the general outlines. Leemans treats the matter differently as will be seen on referring to pag. 562-52 of his monograph, where all the minute details found on the reliefs—or rather all those that appear on Wilsen's drawings, which is not at all the same thing— are carefully enumerated. I have thought it better to avoid crowding out the general view with too much detail and in a work of this kind I consider a comprehensive review will be more to the purpose, anticipating that future research will be able to give the data gathered from Barabudur their right value for our knowledge of the Hindu‑Javanese community.