by
James A. Harrell and V. Max Brown
Department of Earth, Ecological and Environmental Sciences
The University of Toledo

METHODOLOGY:

Since 1989 , through a combination of literature research and field work, we have located a total of 162 ancient quarries in Egypt and Sudan. This number includes all the quarries recognized by earlier workers plus another 30 that we discovered. We have visited 122 of these quarries and although we have not seen the other 40, they are well documented in the literature. In the field we determined the precise locations of quarries and their general petrology, and we also made observations on the extent and type of excavations.

Representative rock samples were collected from 76 of the quarries and analyzed at the University of Toledo by thin-section petrography, x-ray fluorescence and diffraction spectroscopy, neutron activation analysis, and carbon and oxygen isotopic analyses. Petrological descriptions for some quarries have been previously published by others and this data has been combined with our own.

The petrological nomenclature used herein is that widely employed in North America and Europe (see Brown and Harrell 1991 for a review). For example, the mineralogical and textural classification recommended by the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) is employed for igneous rocks and igneous precursors of metamorphic rocks (Streckeisen 1973, 1979). Grain size for phaneritic igneous and metamorphic rocks is characterized as either fine (<1 mm), medium (1-5 mm), coarse (5 mm - 3 cm), or very coarse (>3 cm). Metamorphic rocks are classified on the basis of their structural fabric (foliation) and predominant mineralogy. Although there is no single scheme recommended by an international body as for igneous rocks, there is little disagreement among metamorphic petrologists on nomenclature. A similar situation exists for sedimentary rocks, where relatively few classification schemes are widely used. Accordingly, the limestone nomenclature employed here is that of Dunham (1962) and the nomenclature for sandstones follows that of Pettijohn et al. (1987). The standard Udden-Wentworth grain-size scale is used for sandstones and other siliciclastic rocks whereas for limestones grain size is characterized as either fine (<2 mm), coarse (2 mm - 1 cm), or very coarse (>1 cm).

Stratigraphic nomenclature and ages for the Phanerozoic sedimentary and volcanic rocks follows that of Klitzsch et al. (1986-87) and Hermina et al. (1989). There is no generally accepted stratigraphic nomenclature for the older igneous and metamorphic rocks and so these are identified herein simply as "Precambrian basement".

The age of the workings is known for most of the quarries. Tentative dates for the sandstone and limestone quarries can be assigned based on the type of tool marks found on the quarry walls, using the chronology of Klemm and Klemm (1993), or the age of nearby temples where the rock was probably used. More definite dates are available for some of these and for all the other quarries, and these are based on inscriptions or datable antiquities in the quarries, or a definite association with dated ruins, monuments, or sculptures.

RESULTS:

Our survey findings are summarized in Tables 1 and 2, Maps 1 and 2, and in numerous color images (.jpg files) of the quarry stones made from computer-scanned, polished slabs. These quarry listings are by far the most complete of any published to date. Detailed reports on many of the quarries have been published by the present authors (see "Archaeological Geology Publications" under "General Information" on the Research Group's homepage). The only other useful source of information for many of the quarries is Klemm and Klemm (1993).

The quarries are conveniently divided into two groups: those providing rocks that were difficult to extract and carve (the "hardstones" in Table 1), and those with rocks that were relatively easy to work (the "softstones" in Table 2). We visited and sampled all the hardstone quarries, and a representative selection of the softstone quarries. The locality numbers in both tables correspond with those on the maps in Figures 1 and 2. In each table, the localities are listed downward from north to south in the various groupings. Degrees (d) and minutes (m) of north latitude and east longitude (in brackets) are given for the center of the quarry workings at each locality and, except where noted, are accurate to within 100 meters. In the case of softstone quarries, which sometimes occur close together for long stretches of the Nile Valley, the quarry localities recognized here correspond to groups of workings where the adjacent workings within each group are separated by less than one kilometer.

Quarry ages are given in the tables in italics within parentheses. Where tentative, they are followed by a question mark. The abbreviations used for the ages are as follows: PD = Predynastic period, ED = Early Dynastic period, OK = Old Kingdom, 1IP = First Intermediate period, MK = Middle Kingdom, 2IP = Second Intermediate period, NK = New Kingdom, 3IP = Third Intermediate period, L = Late period, Pt = Ptolemaic period, NM = Napatan-Meroitic period, R = Roman period, B = Byzantine period, and Is = Islamic period. The backslash in the abbreviation "OK/MK" means "and/or" and is an undifferentiated date based on tool marks. Hyphenated abbreviations (for example, "NK-R") indicate the quarry was worked during and between the periods reported. Numerals, as in "MK:12" refer to specific dynasties. The dates given in the tables are based only on surviving evidence, and so it is possible that a given quarry may also have been worked earlier or later than indicated.

BIBLIOGRAPHY (excluding the archaeological geology publications of the present authors):

Brown, V. M. and J. A. Harrell, 1991, Megascopic classification of rocks: Journal of Geological Education, v. 39, p. 379-387.

Dunham, R. J., 1962, Classification of carbonate rocks according to depositional texture: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Memoir 1, p. 108-121.

Hermina, M., E. Klitzsch and F. K. List, 1989, Stratigraphic lexicon and explanatory notes to the geological map of Egypt: Conoco Coral and Egyptian General Petroleum Corporation (Cairo).

Klemm, R. and D. D. Klemm, 1993, Steine und steinbrüche im alten Ägypten: Spring-Verlag (Berlin).

Klitzsch, E., F. K. List and G. Pöhlmann, 1986-87, Geological map of Egypt (1:500,000 in 20 sheets): Conoco Coral and Egyptian General Petroleum Corporation (Cairo).

Pettijohn, F. J., P. E. Potter and R. Siever, 1987, Sand and sandstone (2nd ed.): Springer-Verlag (New York).

Streckeisen, A. L., 1973, Plutonic rocks - classification and nomenclature recommended by the IUGS Subcommission on the Systematics of Igneous Rocks: Geotimes, v. 18, no. 10, p. 26-30.

Streckeisen, A. L., 1979, Classification and nomenclature of volcanic rocks, lamprophyres, carbonatites, and melitic rocks - recommendations and suggestions of the IUGS Subcommission on the Systematics of Igneous Rocks: Geology, v. 7, p. 331-335.

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